1 Cor 7:36-38 . There are two common approaches to understanding the situation addressed in these verses. One view involves a father or male guardian deciding whether to give his daughter or female ward in marriage (cf. NASB, NIV margin). The evidence for this view is: (1) the phrase in v. 37 ( Grk ) “to keep his own virgin” fits this view well (“keep his own virgin [in his household]” rather than give her in marriage), but it does not fit the second view (there is little warrant for adding “her” in the way the second view translates it: “to keep her as a virgin”). (2) The verb used twice in v. 38 ( γαμίζω , gamizw ) normally means “to give in marriage” not “to get married.” The latter is usually expressed by γαμέω ( gamew ), as in v. 36 b. (3) The father deciding what is best regarding his daughter’s marriage reflects the more likely cultural situation in ancient Corinth, though it does not fit modern Western customs. While Paul gives his advice in such a situation, he does not command that marriages be arranged in this way universally. If this view is taken, the translation will read as follows: “ 7:36 If anyone thinks he is acting inappropriately toward his unmarried daughter, if she is past the bloom of youth and it seems necessary, he should do what he wishes; he does not sin. Let them marry. 7:37 But the man who is firm in his commitment, and is under no necessity but has control over his will, and has decided in his own mind to keep his daughter unmarried, does well. 7:38 So then the one who gives his daughter in marriage does well, but the one who does not give her does better.” The other view is taken by NRSV, NIV text, NJB, REB: a single man deciding whether to marry the woman to whom he is engaged. The evidence for this view is: (1) it seems odd to use the word “virgin” (vv. 36, 37, 38 ) if “daughter” or “ward” is intended. (2) The other view requires some difficult shifting of subjects in v. 36 , whereas this view manages a more consistent subject for the various verbs used. (3) The phrases in these verses are used consistently elsewhere in this chapter to describe considerations appropriate to the engaged couple themselves (cf. vv. 9, 28, 39 ). It seems odd not to change the phrasing in speaking about a father or guardian. If this second view is taken, the translation will read as follows: “ 7:36 If anyone thinks he is acting inappropriately toward his fiancée, if his passions are too strong and it seems necessary, he should do what he wishes; he does not sin. Let them marry. 7:37 But the man who is firm in his commitment, and is under no necessity but has control over his will, and has decided in his own mind to keep her as his fiancée, does well. 7:38 So then, the one who marries his fiancée does well, but the one who does not marry her does better.”


“ We all have knowledge. ” Here and in v. 4 Paul cites certain slogans the Corinthians apparently used to justify their behavior (cf. 6:12-13; 7:1; 10:23 ). Paul agrees with the slogans in part, but corrects them to show how the Corinthians have misused these ideas.


“ An idol in this world is nothing ” and “ There is no God but one. ” Here and in v. 1 Paul cites certain slogans the Corinthians apparently used to justify their behavior (cf. 6:12-13; 7:1; 10:23 ). Paul agrees with the slogans in part, but corrects them to show how the Corinthians have misused these ideas.


A quotation from Deut 25:4 .


Ψ Ï lat), have a significantly smoother reading than this: ἢ τὸ καύχημά μου ἵνα τις κενώσῃ (or κενώσει ); h to kauchma mou {ina ti" kenwsh (or kenwsei ), “than that anyone should deprive me of my boasting.” The simple replacement of οὐδείς with ἵνα essentially accomplishes the smoothing out of the text, and as such the ἵνα reading is suspect. Not only is the harder reading in keeping with Pauline style, but it is also found in the earlier and better witnesses. Paul breaks off his thought at mid-sentence (indicated by the dash in the translation) and it is somewhat difficult to determine his reason for boasting . Most likely Paul would rather die than be deprived of the boast that he had offered the gospel free of charge even though as an apostle he had the right to such support ( 9:14 ). Did he say this as a way of criticizing his opponents? Perhaps only indirectly. His focus has more to do with not hindering the gospel than what his opponents were doing ( 9:12 ).


This incident is recorded in Num 25:1-9 .


This incident is recorded in Num 21:5-9 .


“ Everything is lawful. ” Here again Paul cites certain slogans the Corinthians used to justify their behavior (cf. 6:12-13; 7:1; 8:1, 4 ). Paul agrees with the slogans in part, but corrects them to show how the Corinthians have misused these ideas.


A quotation from Ps 24:1 ; an allusion to Ps 50:12; 89:11 .


Paul does not use a word specifying what type of “covering” is meant (veil, hat, etc.). The Greek word he uses here ( ἐξουσία exousia ; translated symbol of authority ) could be (1) a figure of speech that may substitute the result (the right to participate in worship) for the appropriate appearance that makes it possible (the covered head). Or (2) it refers to the outward symbol (having the head covered) as representing the inward attitude the woman is to possess (deference to male leadership in the church).


Paul does not explain this reference to the angels , and its point is not entirely clear. It seems to reflect an awareness that angels are witnesses to church life (cf. Eph 3:10 ) and would be particularly sensitive to resistance against God’s created order.


Paul does not mean nature in the sense of “the natural world” or “Mother Nature.” It denotes “the way things are” because of God’s design.


No word for veil or head covering occurs in vv. 3-14 (see the note on authority in v. 10 ). That the hair is regarded by Paul as a covering in v. 15 is not necessarily an argument that the hair is the same as the head covering that he is describing in the earlier verses (esp. v. 10 ). Throughout this unit of material, Paul points out the similarities of long hair with a head covering. But his doing so seems to suggest that the two are not to be identified with each other. Precisely because they are similar they do not appear to be identical (cf. vv. 5, 6, 7, 10, 13 ). If head covering = long hair, then what does v. 6 mean (“For if a woman will not cover her head, she should cut off her hair”)? This suggests that the covering is not the same as the hair itself.


The questions in vv. 29-30 all expect a negative response.


The Greek term builds (himself) up does not necessarily bear positive connotations in this context.


A quotation from Isa 28:11-12 .


This phrase may be taken with v. 33 a.


For they are not permitted to speak. In light of 11:2-16 , which gives permission for women to pray or prophesy in the church meetings, the silence commanded here seems not to involve the absolute prohibition of a woman addressing the assembly. Therefore (1) some take be silent to mean not taking an authoritative teaching role as indicates, but (2) the better suggestion is to relate it to the preceding regulations about evaluating the prophets (v. 29 ). Here Paul would be indicating that the women should not speak up during such an evaluation, since such questioning would be in violation of the submission to male leadership that the OT calls for ( the law , e.g., Gen 2:18 ).


One born at the wrong time. The Greek word used here ( ἔκτρωμα , ektrwma ) refers to a premature birth, a miscarriage, or an aborted child. Paul uses it as a powerful figure of the unexpected, abnormal nature of his apostolic call.


A quotation from Ps 8:6 .


Many suggestions have been offered for the puzzling expression baptized for the dead . There are up to 200 different explanations for the passage; a summary is given by K. C. Thompson, “ I Corinthians 15,29 and Baptism for the Dead,” Studia Evangelica 2.1 (TU 87), 647-59. The most likely interpretation is that some Corinthians had undergone baptism to bear witness to the faith of fellow believers who had died without experiencing that rite themselves. Paul’s reference to the practice here is neither a recommendation nor a condemnation. He simply uses it as evidence from the lives of the Corinthians themselves to bolster his larger argument, begun in 15:12 , that resurrection from the dead is a present reality in Christ and a future reality for them. Whatever they may have proclaimed, the Corinthians’ actions demonstrated that they had hope for a bodily resurrection.


An allusion to Isa 22:13; 56:12 .


A quotation from the poet Menander, Thais 218, which Paul uses in a proverbial sense.


A quotation from Isa 25:8 .


A quotation from Hos 13:14 .


On Aquila and Prisca see also Acts 18:2, 18, 26 ; Rom 16:3-4 ; 2 Tim 4:19 . In the NT “Priscilla” and “Prisca” are the same person. The author of Acts uses the full name Priscilla, while Paul uses the diminutive form Prisca .


Silvanus is usually considered to be the same person as Silas (L&N 93.340).


Paul had promised to come again to visit (see 2 Cor 1:15, 24 ) but explains here why he had changed his plans. map For location see JP1-C2 ; JP2-C2 ; JP3-C2 ; JP4-C2 .


So that when I came. Regarding this still future visit by Paul, see 2 Cor 12:14; 13:1 .


Troas was a city and region in the northwest corner of Asia Minor.


These things refer to the things Paul is doing in his apostolic ministry.


An allusion to Exod 24:12; 31:18; 34:1 ; Deut 9:10-11 .


This new covenant is promised in Jer 31:31-34; 32:40 .


The glory of his face. When Moses came down from Mt. Sinai with the tablets of the Decalogue, the people were afraid to approach him because his face was so radiant ( Exod 34:29-30 ).


An allusion to Exod 34:34 . The entire verse may refer to Moses, viewing him as a type portraying the Jewish convert to Christianity in Paul’s day.


An allusion to Gen 1:3 ; see also Isa 9:2 .


A quotation from Ps 116:10 .


The expression the tent we live in refers to “our earthly house, our body.” Paul uses the metaphor of the physical body as a house or tent, the residence of the immaterial part of a person.


See the note in 5:1 on the phrase the tent we live in .


The judgment seat ( βῆμα , bhma ) was a raised platform mounted by steps and sometimes furnished with a seat, used by officials in addressing an assembly or making pronouncements, often on judicial matters. The judgment seat was a common item in Greco-Roman culture, often located in the agora , the public square or marketplace in the center of a city. Use of the term in reference to Christ’s judgment would be familiar to Paul’s 1st century readers.


The one who did not know sin is a reference to Jesus Christ.


That is, “in Christ.”


A quotation from Isa 49:8 .


The Greek term Βελιάρ ( Beliar ) is a spelling variant for Βελιάλ ( Belial , see Judg 20:13 LXX). It occurs only here in the NT. Beliar is a reference to Satan.


A quotation from Lev 26:12 ; also similar to Jer 32:38 ; Ezek 37:27 .


A quotation from Isa 52:11 .


A paraphrased quotation from Ezek 20:41 .


A paraphrased quotation from 2 Sam 7:14 and Isa 43:6 .


See 2 Cor 1:4-7 .


My letter. Paul is referring to the “severe” letter mentioned in 2 Cor 2:4 .


What indignation refers to the Corinthians’ indignation at the offender.


That is, punishment for the offender.


A quotation from Exod 16:18 .


An allusion to Prov 3:4 .


Most of them is a reference to the Macedonians (cf. v. 4 ).


He in the quotation refers to the righteous person.


A quotation from Ps 112:9 .


Ultimately Paul is referring here to the false arguments of his opponents, calling them figuratively “ strongholds .” This Greek word ( ὀχύρωμα , ocurwma ) is used only here in the NT.


Unskilled in speaking means not professionally trained as a rhetorician.


Paul is referring to humbling himself to the point of doing manual labor to support himself.


That is, serve them free of charge (cf. the end of v. 7 ).


Many is a reference to Paul’s opponents.


It seems best, in context, to see the statement we were too weak for that as a parenthetical and ironic comment by Paul on his physical condition (weakness or sickness) while he was with the Corinthians (cf. 2 Cor 12:7-10 ; Gal 4:15 ).


Beaten with a rod refers to the Roman punishment of admonitio according to BDAG 902 s.v. ῥαβδίζω . Acts 16:22 describes one of these occasions in Philippi; in this case it was administered by the city magistrates, who had wide powers in a military colony.


Received a stoning. See Acts 14:19 , where this incident is described.


Apart from other things. Paul refers here either (1) to the external sufferings just mentioned, or (2) he refers to other things he has left unmentioned.


In the NT, paradise is mentioned three times. In Luke 23:43 it refers to the abode of the righteous dead. In Rev 2:7 it refers to the restoration of Edenic paradise predicted in Isa 51:3 and Ezek 36:35 . The reference here in 2 Cor 12:4 is probably to be translated as parallel to the mention of the “third heaven” in v. 2 . Assuming that the “first heaven” would be atmospheric heaven (the sky) and “second heaven” the more distant stars and planets, “third heaven” would refer to the place where God dwells. This is much more likely than some variation on the seven heavens mentioned in the pseudepigraphic book 2 Enoch and in other nonbiblical and rabbinic works.


A quotation from Deut 19:15 (also quoted in Matt 18:16 ; 1 Tim 5:19 ).


The one who called you is a reference to God the Father (note the mention of Christ in the following prepositional phrase and the mention of God the Father in 1:1 ).


The traditions of my ancestors refers to both Pharisaic and popular teachings of this time which eventually were codified in Jewish literature such as the Mishnah, Midrashim, and Targums.


As a geographical region Arabia included the territory west of Mesopotamia, east and south of Syria and Palestine, extending to the isthmus of Suez. During the Roman occupation, some independent kingdoms arose like that of the Nabateans south of Damascus, and these could be called simply Arabia. In light of the proximity to Damascus, this may well be the territory Paul says he visited here. See also C. W. Briggs, “The Apostle Paul in Arabia,” Biblical World 41 (1913): 255-59.


Cephas. This individual is generally identified with the Apostle Peter (L&N 93.211).


In order that the truth of the gospel would remain with you. Paul evidently viewed the demands of the so-called “false brothers” as a departure from the truth contained in the gospel he preached. This was a very serious charge (see Gal 1:8 ).


Pillars is figurative here for those like James, Peter, and John who were leaders in the Jerusalem church.


The law is a reference to the law of Moses.


A quotation from Gen 15:6 .


A quotation from Gen 12:3; 18:18 .


A quotation from Lev 18:5 . The phrase the works of the law is an editorial expansion on the Greek text (see previous note); it has been left as normal typeface to indicate it is not part of the OT text.


A quotation from Deut 21:23 . By figurative extension the Greek word translated tree ( ζύλον , zulon ) can also be used to refer to a cross (L&N 6.28), the Roman instrument of execution.


The meaning of the statement the Jerusalem above is free is that the other woman represents the second covenant (cf. v. 24 ); she corresponds to the Jerusalem above that is free. Paul’s argument is very condensed at this point.


A quotation from Gen 21:10 . The phrase of the free woman does not occur in Gen 21:10 .


Here the yoke figuratively represents the burdensome nature of slavery.


That is, if Paul still teaches observance of the Mosaic law ( preaches circumcision ), why is he still being persecuted by his opponents, who insist that Gentile converts to Christianity must observe the Mosaic law?


The offense of the cross refers to the offense to Jews caused by preaching Christ crucified.


A quotation from Lev 19:18 .


Another way to punctuate this is “love” followed by a colon ( love: joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control ). It is thus possible to read the eight characteristics following “love” as defining love.


Who are spiritual refers to people who are controlled and directed by God’s Spirit.


Eph 1:3-14 comprises one long sentence in Greek, with three major sections. Each section ends with a note of praise for God (vv. 6, 12, 14 ), focusing on a different member of the Trinity. After an opening summary of all the saints’ spiritual blessings (v. 3 ), the first section (vv. 4-6 ) offers up praise that the Father has chosen us in eternity past; the second section (vv. 7-12 ) offers up praise that the Son has redeemed us in the historical past (i.e., at the cross); the third section (vv. 13-14 ) offers up praise that the Holy Spirit has sealed us in our personal past, at the point of conversion.


The Greek word translated unblemished ( ἀμώμους , amwmous ) is often used of an acceptable paschal lamb. Christ, as our paschal lamb, is also said to be unblemished ( Heb 9:14 ; 1 Pet 1:19 ). Since believers are in Christ, God views them positionally and will make them ultimately without blemish as well ( Jude 24 ; Eph 5:27 ; Col 1:22 ).


In this context his blood , the blood of Jesus Christ, refers to the price paid for believers’ redemption, which is the sacrificial death of Christ on the cross.


And the things on earth. Verse 10 ends with “in him.” The redundancy keeps the focus on Christ at the expense of good Greek style. Verse 11 repeats the reference with a relative pronoun (“in whom”) – again, at the expense of good Greek style. Although the syntax is awkward, the theology is rich. This is not the first time that a NT writer was so overcome with awe for his Lord that he seems to have lost control of his pen. Indeed, it happened frequently enough that some have labeled their christologically motivated solecisms an “apostolic disease.”


The conjunctive phrase For this reason points back to the preceding section, vv. 3-14 , which is also summed up in this verse in the expression because I have heard of your faith . In other words, the author’s prayer can be made for his audience because he knows that they are true believers.


Eph 1:19-20 . The point made in these verses is that the power required to live a life pleasing to God is the same power that raised Christ from the dead. For a similar thought, cf. John 15:1-11 .


An allusion to Ps 8:6 .


Chapter starts off with a participle, although you were dead , that is left dangling. The syntax in Greek for vv. 1-3 constitutes one incomplete sentence, though it seems to have been done intentionally. The dangling participle leaves the readers in suspense while they wait for the solution (in v. 4 ) to their spiritual dilemma.


The relative pronoun which is feminine as is sins , indicating that sins is the antecedent.


The ruler of the kingdom of the air is also the ruler of the spirit that is now energizing the sons of disobedience . Although several translations regard the ruler to be the same as the spirit , this is unlikely since the cases in Greek are different ( ruler is accusative and spirit is genitive). To get around this, some have suggested that the genitive for spirit is a genitive of apposition. However, the semantics of the genitive of apposition are against such an interpretation (cf. ExSyn 100).


Sons of disobedience is a Semitic idiom that means “people characterized by disobedience.” However, it also contains a subtle allusion to vv. 4-10 : Some of those sons of disobedience have become sons of God.


Among whom. The relative pronoun phrase that begins v. 3 is identical, except for gender, to the one that begins v. 2 ( ἐν αἵς [ en Jais ], ἐν οἵς [ en Jois ]). By the structure, the author is building an argument for our hopeless condition: We lived in sin and we lived among sinful people. Our doom looked to be sealed as well in v. 2 : Both the external environment ( kingdom of the air ) and our internal motivation and attitude ( the spirit that is now energizing ) were under the devil’s thumb (cf. 2 Cor 4:4 ).


Children of wrath is a Semitic idiom which may mean either “people characterized by wrath” or “people destined for wrath.”


Eph 2:1-3 . The translation of vv. 1-3 is very literal, even to the point of retaining the awkward syntax of the original. See note on the word dead in 2:1 .


Apostles and prophets. Because the prophets appear after the mention of the apostles and because they are linked together in 3:5 as recipients of revelation about the church, they are to be regarded not as Old Testament prophets, but as New Testament prophets.


If indeed. The author is not doubting whether his audience has heard, but is rather using provocative language ( if indeed ) to engage his audience in thinking about the magnificence of God’s grace. However, in English translation, the apodosis (“then”-clause) does not come until v. 13 , leaving the protasis (“if”-clause) dangling. Eph 3:2-7 constitute one sentence in Greek.


The phrase through the gospel is placed last in the sentence in Greek for emphasis. It has been moved forward for clarity.


On the exercise of his power see 1:19-20 .


In Pauline writings saints means any true believer. Thus for Paul to view himself as less than the least of all the saints is to view himself as the most unworthy object of Christ’s redemption.


The parallel phrases to proclaim and to enlighten which follow indicate why God’s grace was manifested to Paul. Grace was not something just to be received, but to be shared with others (cf. Acts 13:47 ).


Which. The antecedent (i.e., the word or concept to which this clause refers back) may be either “what I am suffering for you” or the larger concept of the recipients not losing heart over Paul’s suffering for them. The relative pronoun “ which ” is attracted to the predicate nominative “ glory ” in its gender and number (feminine singular), making the antecedent ambiguous. Paul’s suffering for them could be viewed as their glory (cf. Col 1:24 for a parallel) in that his suffering has brought about their salvation, but if so his suffering must be viewed as more than his present imprisonment in Rome; it would be a general description of his ministry overall (cf. 2 Cor 11:23-27 ). The other option is that the author is implicitly arguing that the believers have continued to have courage in the midst of his trials (as not to lose heart suggests) and that this is their glory. Philippians 1:27-28 offers an interesting parallel: The believers’ courage in the face of adversity is a sign of their salvation.


For this reason resumes the point begun in v. 1 , after a long parenthesis.


The object of these dimensions is not stated in the text. Interpreters have suggested a variety of referents for this unstated object, including the cross of Christ, the heavenly Jerusalem (which is then sometimes linked to the Church), God’s power, the fullness of salvation given in Christ, the Wisdom of God, and the love of Christ. Of these interpretations, the last two are the most plausible. Associations from Wisdom literature favor the Wisdom of God, but the immediate context favors the love of Christ. For detailed discussion of these interpretive options, see A. T. Lincoln, Ephesians (WBC), 207-13, who ultimately favors the love of Christ.


On the power that is working within us see 1:19-20 .


With which you have been called. The calling refers to the Holy Spirit’s prompting that caused them to believe. The author is thus urging his readers to live a life that conforms to their saved status before God.


A quotation which is perhaps ultimately derived from Ps 68:18 . However, the wording here differs from that of in both the Hebrew text and the LXX in a few places, the most significant of which is reading “gave gifts to” in place of “received gifts from” as in HT and LXX. It has sometimes been suggested that the author of Ephesians modified the text he was citing in order to better support what he wanted to say here. Such modifications are sometimes found in rabbinic exegesis from this and later periods, but it is also possible that the author was simply citing a variant of known to him but which has not survived outside its quotation here (W. H. Harris, The Descent of Christ [AGJU 32], 104). Another possibility is that the words here, which strongly resemble Ps 68:19 HT and LXX ( 68:18 ET), are actually part of an early Christian hymn quoted by the author.


Some interpreters have understood the phrase pastors and teachers to refer to one and the same group. This would mean that all pastors are teachers and that all teachers are pastors. This position is often taken because it is recognized that both nouns (i.e., pastors and teachers ) are governed by one article in Greek. But because the nouns are plural, it is extremely unlikely that they refer to the same group, but only that the author is linking them closely together. It is better to regard the pastors as a subset of teachers. In other words, all pastors are teachers, but not all teachers are pastors. See ExSyn 284.


Greediness refers to an increasing desire for more and more. The point is that sinful passions and desires are never satisfied.


A quotation from Zech 8:16 .


A quotation from Ps 4:4 . Although several translations render the phrase Be angry and do not sin as “If you are angry, do not sin” such is unlikely on a grammatical, lexical, and historical level (see D. B. Wallace, “ ᾿Οργίζεσθε in Ephesians 4:26 : Command or Condition?” CTR 3 [1989]: 352-72). The idea of vv. 26-27 is as follows: Christians are to exercise a righteous indignation over sin in the midst of the believing community (v. 26 a; note that v. 25 is restricting the discussion to those in the body of Christ). When other believers sin, such people should be gently and quickly confronted (v. 26 b), for if the body of Christ does not address sin in its midst, the devil gains a foothold (v. 27 ). “Entirely opposite of the ‘introspective conscience’ view, this text seems to be a shorthand expression for church discipline, suggesting that there is a biblical warrant for δικαία ὀργή [ dikaia orgh ] (as the Greeks put it) – righteous indignation” ( ExSyn 492).


The expression sons of disobedience is a Semitic idiom that means “people characterized by disobedience.” In this context it refers to “all those who are disobedient.” Cf. Eph 2:2-3 .


The following passage has been typeset as poetry because many scholars regard this passage as poetic or hymnic. These terms are used broadly to refer to the genre of writing, not to the content. There are two broad criteria for determining if a passage is poetic or hymnic: “(a) stylistic: a certain rhythmical lilt when the passages are read aloud, the presence of parallelismus membrorum (i.e., an arrangement into couplets), the semblance of some metre, and the presence of rhetorical devices such as alliteration, chiasmus , and antithesis; and (b) linguistic: an unusual vocabulary, particularly the presence of theological terms, which is different from the surrounding context” (P. T. O’Brien, Philippians [NIGTC], 188-89). Classifying a passage as hymnic or poetic is important because understanding this genre can provide keys to interpretation. However, not all scholars agree that the above criteria are present in this passage, so the decision to typeset it as poetry should be viewed as a tentative decision about its genre.


A composite quotation, possibly from Isa 26:19, 51:17, 52:1, and 60:1 .


Eph 5:19-21 . In Eph 5:18 the author gives the command to be filled by means of the Holy Spirit. In 5:19-21 there follows five participles: (1) speaking; (2) singing; (3) making music; (4) giving thanks; (5) submitting. These participles have been variously interpreted, but perhaps the two most likely interpretations are (1) the participles indicate the means by which one is filled by the Spirit; (2) the participles indicate the result of being filled by the Spirit. The fact that the participles are present tense and follow the command (i.e., “be filled”) would tend to support both of these options. But it seems out of Paul’s character to reduce the filling of the Spirit to a formula of some kind. To the extent that this is true, it is unlikely then that the author is here stating the means for being filled by the Spirit. Because it is in keeping with Pauline theology and has good grammatical support, it is better to take the participles as indicating certain results of being filled by the Spirit. See ExSyn 639.


A quotation from Gen 2:24 .


A quotation from Exod 20:12 and Deut 5:16 .


A quotation from Deut 5:16 .


The pronoun “ this ” ( τοῦτο , touto ) stands first in its clause for emphasis, and stresses the fact that God will reward those, who in seeking him, do good.


The phrase spiritual forces of evil in the heavens serves to emphasize the nature of the forces which oppose believers as well as to indicate the locality from which they originate.


The four participles fastening… putting on…fitting…taking up… indicate the means by which believers can take their stand against the devil and his schemes. The imperative take in v. 17 communicates another means by which to accomplish the standing, i.e., by the word of God.


The Greek word translated shield ( θυρεός , qureos ) refers to the Roman soldier’s large rectangular wooden shield, called in Latin scutum , about 4 ft (1.2 m) high, covered with leather on the outside. Before a battle in which flaming arrows might be shot at them, the soldiers wet the leather covering with water to extinguish the arrows. The Roman legionaries could close ranks with these shields, the first row holding theirs edge to edge in front, and the rows behind holding the shields above their heads. In this formation they were practically invulnerable to arrows, rocks, and even spears.


An allusion to Isa 59:17 .


The Greek term translated sword ( μάχαιρα , macaira ) refers to the Roman gladius , a short sword about 2 ft (60 cm) long, used for close hand-to-hand combat. This is the only clearly offensive weapon in the list of armor mentioned by the author (he does not, for example, mention the lance [Latin pilum ]).


The overseers (or “church leaders,” L&N 53.71) is another term for the same official position of leadership as the “elder.” This is seen in the interchange of the two terms in Titus 1:6-7 and in Acts 20:17, 28 , as well as in the parallels between Titus 1:6-7 and 1 Tim 3:1-7 .


Your participation ( Grk “fellowship”) could refer to Paul rejoicing because of the Philippian converts’ “fellowship” in the gospel along with him, but it is more likely that this refers to their active “participation” with him in the gospel by means of the financial support they sent to Paul on more than one occasion, discussed later in this letter ( 4:10-19 , esp. 4:15-16 ).


The whole imperial guard ( Grk “praetorium”) can refer to the elite troops stationed in Rome or the headquarters of administrators in the provinces (cf. Matt 27:27 ; Mark 15:16 ; John 18:28, 33; 19:9 ; Acts 23:35 ). In either case a metonymy is involved, with the place (the praetorium) put for those (soldiers or government officials) who were connected with it or stationed in it.


Paul’s confidence in his release from prison ( I know that I will remain and continue with all of you ) implies that this Roman imprisonment did not end in his death. Hence, there is the likelihood that he experienced a second Roman imprisonment later on (since the belief of the early church was that Paul died under Nero in Rome). If so, then the pastoral letters (1-2 Tim, Titus) could well fit into a life of Paul that goes beyond any descriptions in the book of Acts (which ends with Paul’s first Roman imprisonment). Some have argued that the pastorals cannot be genuine because they cannot fit into the history of Acts. But this view presupposes that Paul’s first Roman imprisonment was also his last.


This passage has been typeset as poetry because many scholars regard this passage as poetic or hymnic. These terms are used broadly to refer to the genre of writing, not to the content. There are two broad criteria for determining if a passage is poetic or hymnic: “(a) stylistic: a certain rhythmical lilt when the passages are read aloud, the presence of parallelismus membrorum (i.e., an arrangement into couplets), the semblance of some metre, and the presence of rhetorical devices such as alliteration, chiasmus , and antithesis; and (b) linguistic: an unusual vocabulary, particularly the presence of theological terms, which is different from the surrounding context” (P. T. O’Brien, Philippians [NIGTC], 188-89). Classifying a passage as hymnic or poetic is important because understanding this genre can provide keys to interpretation. However, not all scholars agree that the above criteria are present in this passage, so the decision to typeset it as poetry should be viewed as a tentative decision about its genre.


The Greek term translated form indicates a correspondence with reality. Thus the meaning of this phrase is that Christ was truly God.


editions of the Greek text. Some translations, however, break the verses in front of this phrase (NKJV, NASB, NIV, NLT). The same material has been translated in each case; the only difference is the versification of that material. By sharing in human nature. This last line of v. 7 (line d) stands in tension with the previous line, line c (“by looking like other men”). Both lines have a word indicating form or likeness. Line c, as noted above, implies that Christ only appeared to be like other people. Line d, however, uses a different term that implies a correspondence between form and reality. Further, line c uses the plural “men” while line d uses the singular “man.” The theological point being made is that Christ looked just like other men, but he was not like other men (in that he was not sinful), though he was fully human.


Dogs is a figurative reference to false teachers whom Paul regards as just as filthy as dogs.


A Pharisee was a member of one of the most important and influential religious and political parties of Judaism in the time of Jesus. There were more Pharisees than Sadducees (according to Josephus, Ant. 17.2.4 [17.42] there were more than 6,000 Pharisees at about this time). Pharisees differed with Sadducees on certain doctrines and patterns of behavior. The Pharisees were strict and zealous adherents to the laws of the OT and to numerous additional traditions such as angels and bodily resurrection.


Paul’s point is that even though the arguments seem to make sense ( sound reasonable ), they are in the end false. Paul is not here arguing against the study of philosophy or serious thinking per se, but is arguing against the uncritical adoption of a philosophy that is at odds with a proper view of Christ and the ethics of the Christian life.


The three participles rooted , built up , and firm belong together and reflect three different metaphors. The first participle “ rooted ” (perfect tense) indicates a settled condition on the part of the Colossian believers and refers to horticulture. The second participle “ built up ” (present passive) comes from the world of architecture. The third participle “ firm [established]” (present passive) comes from the law courts. With these three metaphors (as well as the following comment on thankfulness) Paul explains what he means when he commands them to continue to live their lives in Christ. The use of the passive probably reflects God’s activity among them. It was he who had rooted them, had been building them up, and had established them in the faith (cf. 1 Cor 3:5-15 for the use of mixed metaphors).


In him all the fullness of deity lives. The present tense in this verse (“ lives ”) is significant. Again, as was stated in the note on 1:19 , this is not a temporary dwelling, but a permanent one. Paul’s point is polemical against the idea that the fullness of God dwells anywhere else, as the Gnostics believed, except in Christ alone. At the incarnation, the second person of the Trinity assumed humanity, and is forever the God-man.


share errant readings of omission. Nevertheless, the strength of the internal evidence against the longer reading is at least sufficient to cause doubt here. The decision to retain the words in the text is less than certain. The expression sons of disobedience is a Semitic idiom that means “people characterized by disobedience.” In this context it refers to “all those who are disobedient.” Cf. Eph 5:6 .


Put off all such things. The commands in vv. 8-9 are based on two reasons given in vv. 9-10 – reasons which are expressed in terms of a metaphor about clothing oneself. Paul says that they have put off the old man and have put on the new man. Two things need to be discussed in reference to Paul’s statement. (1) What is the meaning of the clothing imagery (i.e., the “ have put off ” and “ have been clothed ”)? (2) What is the meaning of the old man and the new man ? Though some commentators understand the participles “ have put off ” (v. 9 ) and “ have been clothed ” (v. 10 ) as imperatives (i.e., “put off!” and “put on!”), this use of participles is extremely rare in the NT and thus unlikely here. It is better to take them as having the semantic force of indicatives, and thus they give an explanation of what had happened to the Colossians at the time of their conversion – they had taken off the old man and put on the new when they trusted in Christ (cf. 1:4 ). While it is difficult to say for certain what the background to Paul’s “clothing” metaphor might be (whether it is primarily Jewish and comes from the OT, or primarily Gentile and comes from some facet of the Greco-Roman religious milieu), it is nonetheless clear, on the basis of Paul’s usage of the expression, that the old man refers to man as he is in Adam and dominated by sin (cf. Rom 6:6 ; Eph 4:22 ), while the new man refers to the Christian whose new sphere of existence is in Christ. Though the metaphor of clothing oneself primarily reflects outward actions, there is a distinct inward aspect to it, as the rest of v. 10 indicates: being renewed in knowledge according to the image of the one who created it . Paul’s point, then, is that Christians should take off their dirty clothing (inappropriate behavior) and put on clean clothing (behavior consistent with knowing Christ) because this has already been accomplished in a positional sense at the time of their conversion (cf. Gal 3:27 with Rom 13:14 ).


This letter is otherwise unknown, but some have suggested that it is the letter known today as Ephesians.


The coming wrath. This wrath is an important theme in .


Crown to boast of ( Grk “crown of boasting”). Paul uses boasting or exultation to describe the Christian’s delight in being commended for faithful service by the Lord at his return ( 1 Cor 9:15-16 ; 2 Cor 1:12-14; 10:13-18 ; Phil 2:16 ; and 1 Cor 3:14; 4:5 ).


As you received instruction from us about how ( Grk “as you received from us how”). The Greek word translated received is used for accepting instructions passed on as fixed traditions from teacher to follower. Paul speaks in these terms about doctrinal traditions as well as ethical instruction that he passes on to his converts and expects them to keep (cf. 1 Cor 11:2, 23; 15:1-3 ; Gal 1:9 ; Phil 4:9 ; 2 Thess 2:15; 3:6 ).


To do so more and more. See 1 Thess 4:1 .


The word of the Lord is a technical expression in OT literature, often referring to a divine prophetic utterance (e.g., Gen 15:1 , Isa 1:10 , Jonah 1:1 ). In the NT it occurs 15 times: 3 times as ῥῆμα τοῦ κυρίου ( rJhma tou kuriou ; Luke 22:61 , Acts 11:16 , 1 Pet 1:25 ) and 12 times as λόγος τοῦ κυρίου ( logo" tou kuriou ; here and in Acts 8:25; 13:44, 48, 49; 15:35, 36; 16:32; 19:10, 20 ; 1 Thess 1:8 ; 2 Thess 3:1 ). As in the OT, this phrase focuses on the prophetic nature and divine origin of what has been said.


The day of the Lord is the period of time in the future when the Lord will intervene in the events of this earth to consummate his redemption and his judgment ( Isa 2:11-12; 13:6-13 ; Ezek 30:3 ; Joel 1:15; 2:32; 3:18 ; Amos 5:18-20 ; Obad 15-17 ; Zeph 1:7-18; 2:2-3 ; Zech 14:1, 13, 20-21 ; Mal 4:1, 5 ; 1 Cor 1:8; 5:5 ; 2 Cor 1:14 ; 2 Thess 2:2 ; 2 Pet 3:10 ). It includes both blessings and curses, though the latter is emphasized here.


Jesus used a thief coming at night as an illustration of the unexpected and hostile nature of the coming of God’s judgment in the future. This is repeated in various ways in v. 4 ; 2 Pet 3:10 ; Rev 3:3; 16:15 .


An allusion to Isa 59:17 .


God did not destine us for wrath. In context this refers to the outpouring of God’s wrath on the earth in the day of the Lord ( 1 Thess 5:2-4 ).


The phrases alert or asleep may be understood (1) of moral alertness (living in faith, love, and hope as vv. 6, 8 call for, versus being unresponsive to God) or (2) of physical life and death (whether alive or dead). The first fits better with the context of 5:1-9 , while the second returns to the point Paul started with in 4:13-18 (no disadvantage for the believing dead).


An allusion to Jer 10:25 , possibly also to Ps 79:6 and Isa 66:15 .


Allusions to Isa 14:13-14 ; Dan 11:36 ; Ezek 28:2-9 respectively.


That you may possess the glory of our Lord Jesus Christ. For Paul the ultimate stage of salvation is glorification ( Rom 8:30 ).


God our Savior. Use of the title “Savior” for God the Father is characteristic of 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus. It occurs six times in these letters, but only twice elsewhere in the NT. However, it occurs commonly in the OT, especially in Isaiah. It emphasizes the Father as the initiator and source of salvation.


Myths and interminable genealogies. These myths were legendary tales characteristic of the false teachers in Ephesus and Crete. See parallels in 1 Tim 4:7 ; 2 Tim 4:4 ; and Titus 1:14 . They were perhaps built by speculation from the patriarchal narratives in the OT; hence the connection with genealogies and with wanting to be teachers of the law (v. 7 ).


Law. There is no definite article (“the”) with this word in Greek and so the inherent quality of the OT law as such is in view. But the OT law is still in mind, since the types of sinful people surveyed in vv. 9 b-11a follow the general outline of sins prohibited in the Decalogue.


This charge refers to the task Paul described to Timothy in vv. 3-7 above.


The prophecies once spoken about you were apparently spoken at Timothy’s ordination (cf. 1 Tim 4:14 ) and perhaps spoke of what God would do through him. Thus they can encourage him in his work, as the next clause says.


The expression handed over to Satan refers to an act of discipline mentioned by Paul here and in 1 Cor 5:5 , with a remedial goal, not a punitive one. The Greek word translated taught in this verse is used of “discipline, training of children” to lead them to correct behavior.


Revealing God’s purpose at his appointed time is a difficult expression without clear connection to the preceding, literally “a testimony at the proper time.” This may allude to testimony about Christ’s atoning work given by Paul and others (as v. 7 mentions). But it seems more likely to identify Christ’s death itself as a testimony to God’s gracious character (as vv. 3-4 describe). This testimony was planned from all eternity, but now has come to light at the time God intended, in the work of Christ. See 2 Tim 1:9-10 ; Titus 2:11-14; 3:4-7 for similar ideas.


To pray. In this verse Paul resumes and concludes the section about prayer begun in 2:1-2 . 1 Tim 2:3-7 described God’s concern for all people as the motive for such prayer.


Paul uses a common ancient posture in prayer ( lifting up holy hands ) as a figure of speech for offering requests from a holy life ( without anger or dispute ).


But I do not allow. Although the Greek conjunction δέ ( de ) can have a simple connective force (“and”), it is best to take it as contrastive here: Verse 11 gives a positive statement (that is to say, that a woman should learn ). This was a radical and liberating departure from the Jewish view that women were not to learn the law.


The mystery of the faith is a reference to the revealed truths of the Christian faith.


The statement those who have served well as deacons gain a good standing for themselves is reminiscent of Jesus’ teaching ( Matt 20:26-28 ; Mark 10:43-45 ) that the one who wishes to be great must be a servant ( διάκονος [ diakonos ], used here of deacons) of all, just as the Son of Man came not to be served but to serve ( διακονέω [ diakonew ], as in 1 Tim 3:10, 13 ).


In the phrase the faith that is in Christ Jesus , the term faith seems to mean “what Christians believe, Christian truth,” rather than personal trust in Christ. So the whole phrase could mean that others will come to place greater confidence in them regarding Christian truth; but the word “confidence” is much more likely to refer to their own boldness to act on the truth of their convictions.


By pointing out…you have followed. This verse gives a theme statement for what follows in the chapter about Timothy’s ministry. The situation in Ephesus requires him to be a good servant of Christ, and he will do that by sound teaching and by living an exemplary life himself.


Those myths refer to legendary tales characteristic of the false teachers in Ephesus and Crete. See parallels in 1 Tim 1:4 ; 2 Tim 4:4 ; and Titus 1:14 .


The word honor here carries the double meaning of respect and financial support. This Greek word can imply both senses, and both are intended in this context.


This list was an official enrollment, apparently with a formal pledge to continue as a widow and serve the Lord in that way (cf. v. 12 ). It was either (1) the list of “true widows” who were given support by the church or (2) a smaller group of older women among the supported widows who were qualified for special service (perhaps to orphans, other widows, the sick, etc.). Most commentators understand it to be the former, since a special group is not indicated clearly. See G. W. Knight, Pastoral Epistles , 222-23 for discussion.


A quotation from Deut 25:4 .


A quotation from Luke 10:7 .


An allusion to Deut 17:6, 19:15 .


As a continuation of v. 19 , this refers to elders who sin, not to sinning believers more generally.


This verse gives parenthetical advice to Timothy, to clarify what it means to keep pure ( 5:22 c). Verse 24 resumes the instructions about elders.


At some point in Timothy’s life, he publicly acknowledged Jesus as the resurrected Lord, perhaps either at his baptism or his ordination as a minister of the gospel. With this reminder of the historical moment of his good confession , Timothy is encouraged to remain steadfast in his faith and to finish his life as a minister in the same way it began (see G. W. Knight, Pastoral Epistles [NIGTC], 264-65).


What has been entrusted to me ( Grk “my entrustment,” meaning either (1) “what I have entrusted to him” [his life, destiny, etc.] or (2) “what he has entrusted to me” [the truth of the gospel]). The parallel with v. 14 and use of similar words in the pastorals ( 1 Tim 6:20 ; 2 Tim 2:2 ) argue for the latter sense.


That day is a reference to the day when Paul would stand before Christ to give account for his service (cf. 2 Tim 1:18 ; 1 Cor 3:13 ; 2 Cor 5:9-10 ).


That good thing ( Grk “the good deposit”) refers to the truth of the gospel committed to Timothy (cf. 1 Tim 6:20 ).


That day is a reference to the day when Onesiphorus (v. 16 ) stands before Christ to give account for his service (cf. v. 12 ; 1 Cor 3:13 ; 2 Cor 5:9-10 ).


According to the rules ( Grk “lawfully, by law”) referring to the rules of competition. In the ancient world these included requirements for training as well as rules for the competition itself.


This saying ( Grk “the saying”) refers to the following citation. See 1 Tim 1:15; 3:1; 4:9 ; Titus 3:8 for other occurrences of this phrase.


The following passage has been typeset as poetry because many scholars regard this passage as poetic or hymnic. These terms are used broadly to refer to the genre of writing, not to the content. There are two broad criteria for determining if a passage is poetic or hymnic: “(a) stylistic: a certain rhythmical lilt when the passages are read aloud, the presence of parallelismus membrorum (i.e., an arrangement into couplets), the semblance of some metre, and the presence of rhetorical devices such as alliteration, chiasmus , and antithesis; and (b) linguistic: an unusual vocabulary, particularly the presence of theological terms, which is different from the surrounding context” (P. T. O’Brien, Philippians [NIGTC], 188-89). Classifying a passage as hymnic or poetic is important because understanding this genre can provide keys to interpretation. However, not all scholars agree that the above criteria are present in this passage, so the decision to typeset it as poetry should be viewed as a tentative decision about its genre.


If we are unfaithful…he cannot deny himself. This could be (1) a word of warning (The Lord will exact punishment; he cannot deny his holiness) or (2) a word of hope (Because of who he is, he remains faithful to us despite our lapses). The latter is more likely, since Paul consistently cites God’s faithfulness as a reassurance, not as a warning (cf. especially Rom 3:3 ; also 1 Cor 1:9; 10:13 ; 2 Cor 1:18 ; 1 Thess 5:24 ; 2 Thess 3:3 ).


Accurately is a figure of speech that literally means something like “cutting a straight road.” In regard to the message of truth, it means “correctly handling” or “imparting it without deviation.”


Profane chatter was apparently a characteristic of the false teachers in Ephesus (cf. 1 Tim 1:3-4; 4:7; 6:20 ).


A quotation from Num 16:5 .


In company with others who call on the Lord from a pure heart alludes to the value of the community of believers for the development of Christian virtues.


Correcting is the word for “child-training” or “discipline.” It is often positive (training, educating) but here denotes the negative side (correcting, disciplining).


Jannes and Jambres were the traditional names of two of Pharaoh’s magicians who opposed Moses at the time of the Exodus.


There is a strong emphasis on the pronoun you in contrast to the people described in vv. 2-9 .


In Antioch, in Iconium, and in Lystra. See Acts 13-14 for the account of these persecutions. map For location see JP1-E2 ; JP2-E2 ; JP3-E2


Inspired by God. Some have connected this adjective in a different way and translated it as “every inspired scripture is also useful.” But this violates the parallelism of the two adjectives in the sentence, and the arrangement of words makes clear that both should be taken as predicate adjectives: “ every scripture is inspired…and useful .”


These myths were legendary tales characteristic of the false teachers in Ephesus and Crete. See parallels in 1 Tim 1:4; 4:7 ; and Titus 1:14 .


The expression I have competed well ( Grk “I have competed the good competition”) uses words that may refer to a race or to a boxing or wrestling match: “run the good race” or “fight the good fight.” The similar phrase in 1 Tim 1:18 uses a military picture and is more literally “war the good warfare.”


An allusion to Ps 28:4 .


On Prisca and Aquila see also Acts 18:2, 18, 26 ; Rom 16:3-4 ; 1 Cor 16:19 . In the NT “Priscilla” and “Prisca” are the same person. The author of Acts uses the full name Priscilla, while Paul uses the diminutive form Prisca .


The overseer is another term for the same official position of leadership as the “elder.” This is seen in the interchange of the two terms in this passage and in Acts 20:17, 28 , as well as in the parallels between these verses and 1 Tim 3:1-7 .


A saying attributed to the poet Epimenides of Crete (6th century b.c. ).


Jewish myths were legendary tales characteristic of the false teachers in Ephesus and Crete. See parallels in 1 Tim 1:4; 4:7 ; and 2 Tim 4:4 .


Temperate…in endurance. See the same cluster of virtues in 1 Thess 1:3 and 1 Cor 13:13 .


This saying ( Grk “the saying”) refers to the preceding citation ( Titus 3:4-7 ). See 1 Tim 1:15; 3:1; 4:9 ; 2 Tim 2:11 for other occurrences of this phrase.


Fights about the law were characteristic of the false teachers in Ephesus as well as in Crete (cf. 1 Tim 1:3-7 ; Titus 1:10, 14 ).


The phrase a prisoner of Christ Jesus implies that Paul was being held prisoner because of his testimony for Christ Jesus. Paul’s imprisonment was due to his service to Christ, in the same manner as John was exiled to the Isle of Patmos because of his testimony ( Rev 1:9 ).


Apphia is thought to be the wife of Philemon.


I always thank my God. An offer of thanksgiving ( εὐχαριστῶ , eucaristw ) to God is a customary formula for Paul in many of his epistles (cf. Rom 1:8 , 1 Cor 1:4 , Eph 1:16 , Col 1:3 , 1 Thess 1:2 , 2 Thess 1:3 ). The content of the thanksgiving typically points to the work of God in the salvation of the believers to whom he [Paul] writes.


Your faith in the Lord Jesus and your love for all the saints. In accord with Paul, John also advocates this combination of “faith in Christ and love for the saints.” The believers’ invisible faith becomes visible in the demonstration of love for others. This, of course, is not only desired, but commanded ( 1 John 3:23 ). Although Paul’s comment here may appear as a stock expression to the casual reader, praising Philemon for his track record of faithfulness to Christ demonstrated in love for the saints is actually integral to the author’s argument in this short but pithy letter. Paul will soon ask Philemon to demonstrate this love toward Onesimus, his runaway slave.


During my imprisonment. Apparently Onesimus became a believer under Paul’s shepherding while he [Paul] was a prisoner in Rome.


So that you would have him back eternally. The notion here is not that Onesimus was to be the slave of Philemon eternally , but that their new relationship as brothers in Christ would transcend the societal structures of this age. The occasion of Onesimus’ flight to Rome would ultimately be a catalyst in the formation of a new and stronger bond between these two men.


With my own hand. Paul may have considered this letter so delicate that he wrote the letter himself as opposed to using an amanuensis or secretary.


The statement you owe me your very self means that Paul was responsible for some sort of blessing in the life of Philemon; though a monetary idea may be in mind, it is perhaps better to understand Paul as referring to the spiritual truth (i.e., the gospel) he had taught Philemon.


Refresh my heart in Christ. Paul desired that Philemon refresh his heart in the same way that he [Philemon] had refreshed the hearts of other believers (cf. Phlm 7 ), that is, by forgiving and accepting Onesimus. In this way the presence and character of Jesus Christ would be vividly seen in Philemon’s attitude toward his runaway slave.


Epaphras is probably a shortened form of the name Epaphroditus. This is probably the same individual whom Paul spoke of as “my brother, coworker, and fellow soldier” in Phil 2:25 (see also Phil 4:18 ). He is also mentioned in Col 1:7 and 4:12 , where he is a founder of the church in Colossae (BDAG 360 s.v. ᾿Επαφρᾶς ).


Aristarchus accompanied Paul on his collection-journey when Paul left for Rome in Acts 27:2 . He is also mentioned as a fellow prisoner in Col 4:10 .


Demas is most likely the same individual mentioned by the Apostle Paul in 2 Tim 4:10 . Apparently, he later on abandoned the faith because of his love of the world.


An allusion to Ps 110:1 , quoted often in Hebrews.


A quotation combining themes from Deut 32:43 and Ps 97:7 .


The Greek correlative conjunctions μέν and δέ ( men and de ) emphasize the contrastive parallelism of vs. 7 (what God says about the angels) over against vv. 8-9 and vv. 10-12 (what God says about the son).


A quotation from Ps 104:4 .


God…has anointed you over your companions. God’s anointing gives the son a superior position and authority over his fellows.


A quotation from Ps 45:6-7 .


You founded the earth … your years will never run out . In its original setting Ps 102:25-27 refers to the work of God in creation, but here in Hebrews 1:10-12 the writer employs it in reference to Christ, the Lord , making a strong argument for the essential deity of the Son.


Ψ 0243 0278 33 1881 Ï lat sy bo). Although it is possible that longer reading was produced by overzealous scribes who wanted to underscore the frailty of creation, it is much more likely that the shorter reading was produced by scribes who wanted to conform the wording to that of Ps 102:26 (101:27 LXX), which here lacks the second “like a garment.” Both external and internal considerations decidedly favor the longer reading, and point to the author of Hebrews as the one underscoring the difference between the Son and creation. The phrase like a garment here is not part of the original OT text (see tc note above); for this reason it has been printed in normal type.


A quotation from Ps 102:25-27 .


The parallel phrases to which of the angels in vv. 5 and 13 show the unity of this series of quotations (vv. 5-14 ) in revealing the superiority of the Son over angels (v. 4 ).


A quotation from Ps 110:1 .


The message spoken through angels refers to the OT law, which according to Jewish tradition was mediated to Moses through angels (cf. Deut 33:2 ; Ps 68:17-18 ; Acts 7:38, 53 ; Gal 3:19 ; and Jub. 1:27, 29; Josephus, Ant. 15.5.3 [15.136]).


The phrase the world to come means “the coming inhabited earth,” using the Greek term which describes the world of people and their civilizations.


See the previous reference to the world in Heb 1:6 .


The expression all things under his control occurs three times in 2:8 . The latter two occurrences are not exactly identical to the Greek text of Ps 8:6 quoted at the beginning of the verse, but have been adapted by the writer of Hebrews to fit his argument.


The Greek word translated pioneer is used of a “prince” or leader, the representative head of a family. It also carries nuances of “trailblazer,” one who breaks through to new ground for those who follow him. It is used some thirty-five times in the Greek OT and four times in the NT, always of Christ ( Acts 3:15; 5:31 ; Heb 2:10; 12:2 ).


A quotation from Ps 22:22 .


A quotation from Isa 8:17-18 .


A quotation from Num 12:7 .


The Greek makes the contrast between v. 5 and v. 6 a more emphatic and explicit than is easily done in English.


The following quotation is from Ps 95:7 b-11.


A quotation from Ps 95:7 b-8.


An allusion to God’s judgment pronounced in Num 14:29, 32 .


A quotation from Ps 95:11 .


A quotation from Gen 2:2 .


does not mention David either in the text or the superscription. It is possible that the writer of Hebrews is attributing the entire collection of psalms to David (although some psalms are specifically attributed to other individuals or groups).


Honor refers here to the honor of the high priesthood.


A quotation from Ps 110:4 .


There is a wordplay in the Greek text between the verbs “learned” ( ἔμαθεν , emaqen ) and “suffered” ( ἔπαθεν , epaqen ).


The phrase in the order of Melchizedek picks up the quotation from Ps 110:4 in Heb 5:6 .


The curtain refers to the veil or drape in the temple that separated the holy place from the holy of holies.


A quotation from Ps 110:4 , picked up again from Heb 5:6, 10 .


A series of quotations from Gen 14:17-19 .


A quotation from Gen 14:20 .


The verbs “ collected…and blessed ” emphasize the continuing effect of the past actions, i.e., Melchizedek’s importance.


A quotation from Ps 110:4 (see Heb 5:6 and 6:20 ).


The Greek text contains an elaborate comparison between v. 20 a and v. 22 , with a parenthesis (vv. 20 b-21) in between; the comparison is literally, “by as much as…by so much” or “to the degree that…to that same degree.”


A quotation from Ps 110:4 (see Heb 5:6, 6:20, and 7:17 ).


See Heb 5:2 where this concept was introduced.


An allusion to Ps 110:1 ; see Heb 1:3, 13 .


A quotation from Exod 25:40 .


The Greek text indicates a contrast between vv. 4-5 and v. 6 that is difficult to render in English: Jesus’ status in the old order of priests (vv. 4-5 ) versus his superior ministry (v. 6 ).


This linkage of the change in priesthood with a change in the law or the covenant goes back to Heb 7:12, 22 and is picked up again in Heb 9:6-15 and 10:1-18 .


The “fault” or limitation in the first covenant was not in its inherent righteousness, but in its design from God himself. It was never intended to be his final revelation or provision for mankind; it was provisional, always pointing toward the fulfillment to come in Christ.


A quotation from Jer 31:31-34 .


The cherubim (pl.) were an order of angels mentioned repeatedly in the OT but only here in the NT. They were associated with God’s presence, glory, and holiness. Their images that sat on top of the ark of the covenant are described in Exod 25:18-20 .


The Greek text reinforces this by negating the opposite (“not even the first covenant was inaugurated without blood”), but this double negation is not used in contemporary English.


An allusion to Isa 53:12 .


A quotation from Ps 40:6-8 (LXX). The phrase a body you prepared for me (in v. 5 ) is apparently an interpretive expansion of the HT reading “ears you have dug out for me.”


Various phrases from the quotation of Ps 40:6 in Heb 10:5-6 are repeated in Heb 10:8 .


An allusion to Ps 110:1 .


A quotation from Jer 31:33 .


A quotation from Jer 31:34 .


Through his flesh. In a bold shift the writer changes from a spatial phrase (Christ opened the way through the curtain into the inner sanctuary) to an instrumental phrase (he did this through [by means of] his flesh in his sacrifice of himself), associating the two in an allusion to the splitting of the curtain in the temple from top to bottom ( Matt 27:51 ; Mark 15:38 ; Luke 23:45 ). Just as the curtain was split, so Christ’s body was broken for us, to give us access into God’s presence.


The phrase our hearts sprinkled clean from an evil conscience combines the OT imagery of the sprinkling with blood to give ritual purity with the emphasis on the interior cleansing provided by the new covenant: It is the heart that is cleansed and the conscience made perfect (cf. Heb 8:10; 9:9, 14; 10:2, 16 ).


The day refers to that well-known time of Christ’s coming and judgment in the future; see a similar use of “day” in 1 Cor 3:13 .


An allusion to Deut 17:6 .


A quotation from Deut 32:35 .


A quotation from Deut 32:36 .


A quotation from Isa 26:20 .


A quotation from Hab 2:3 .


A quotation from Hab 2:4 .


The Greek phrasing emphasizes this point by negating the opposite: “so that what is seen did not come into being from things that are visible.”


An allusion to Gen 22:17 (which itself goes back to Gen 15:5 ).


Joseph’s prophecy about the exodus of the sons of Israel is found in Gen 50:24 .


The expression these all were commended forms an inclusio with Heb 11:2 : The chapter begins and ends with references to commendation for faith.


A quotation from Prov 3:11-12 .


A quotation from Isa 35:3 . Strengthen your listless hands and your weak knees refers to the readers’ need for renewed resolve and fresh strength in their struggles (cf. Heb 10:36-39; 12:1-3 ).


A quotation from Prov 4:26 . The phrase make straight paths for your feet is figurative for “stay on God’s paths.”


The references to peace and holiness show the close connection between this paragraph and the previous one. The pathway toward “holiness” and the need for it is cited in Heb 12:10 and 14 . More importantly Prov 4:26-27 sets up the transition from one paragraph to the next: It urges people to stay on godly paths ( Prov 4:26 , quoted here in v. 13 ) and promises that God will lead them in peace if they do so ( Prov 4:27 [LXX], quoted in v. 14 ).


An allusion to Gen 27:34-41 .


A quotation from Exod 19:12-13 .


Abel’s shed blood cried out to the Lord for justice and judgment, but Jesus’ blood speaks of redemption and forgiveness, something better than Abel’s does ( Gen 4:10 ; Heb 9:11-14; 11:4 ).


A quotation from Hag 2:6 .


A quotation from Deut 4:24; 9:3 .


This is a vague allusion to people described in scripture and extra-biblical literature and may include Abraham and Sarah ( Gen 18:2-15 ), Lot ( Gen 19:1-14 ), Gideon ( Judg 6:11-18 ), Manoah ( Judg 13:3-22 ), and possibly Tobit (Tob 12:1-20).


A quotation from Deut 31:6, 8 .


A quotation from Ps 118:6 .


God’s righteousness could refer to (1) God’s righteous standard, (2) the righteousness God gives, (3) righteousness before God, or (4) God’s eschatological righteousness (see P. H. Davids, James [NIGTC], 93, for discussion).


A quotation from Lev 19:18 (also quoted in Matt 19:19; 22:39 ; Mark 12:31 ; Luke 10:27 ; Rom 13:9 ; Gal 5:14 ).


A quotation from Exod 20:14 and Deut 5:18 .


A quotation from Exod 20:13 and Deut 5:17 .


The form of the question in Greek expects a negative answer.


A quotation from Gen 15:6 .


An allusion to 2 Chr 20:7 ; Isa 41:8; 51:2 ; Dan 3:35 (LXX), in which Abraham is called God’s “beloved.”


The word translated hell is “Gehenna” ( γέεννα , geenna ), a Greek transliteration of the Hebrew words ge hinnom (“Valley of Hinnom”). This was the valley along the south side of Jerusalem. In OT times it was used for human sacrifices to the pagan god Molech (cf. Jer 7:31; 19:5-6; 32:35 ), and it came to be used as a place where human excrement and rubbish were disposed of and burned. In the intertestamental period, it came to be used symbolically as the place of divine punishment (cf. 1 En. 27:2, 90:26; 4 Ezra 7:36).


A quotation from Prov 3:34 .


James’ point seems to be that instead of seeking deliverance from condemnation, they have defied God’s law ( fattened your hearts ) and made themselves more likely objects of his judgment ( in a day of slaughter ).


The term gates is used metaphorically here. The physical referent would be the entrances to the city, but the author uses the term to emphasize the imminence of the judge’s approach.


An allusion to Exod 34:6 ; Neh 9:17 ; Ps 86:15; 102:13 ; Joel 2:13 ; Jonah 4:2 .


For obedience and for sprinkling indicates the purpose of their choice or election by God.


Prophets refers to the OT prophets.


A quotation from Lev 19:2 .


Here all flesh is a metaphor for humanity – human beings as both frail and temporary.


The word of the Lord is a technical expression in OT literature, often referring to a divine prophetic utterance (e.g., Gen 15:1 , Isa 1:10 , Jonah 1:1 ). In the NT it occurs 15 times: 3 times as ῥῆμα τοῦ κυρίου ( rJhma tou kuriou ; here and in Luke 22:61 , Acts 11:16 ) and 12 times as λόγος τοῦ κυρίου ( logo" tou kuriou ; Acts 8:25; 13:44, 48, 49; 15:35, 36; 16:32; 19:10, 20 ; 1 Thess 1:8, 4:15 ; 2 Thess 3:1 ). As in the OT, this phrase focuses on the prophetic nature and divine origin of what has been said.


A quotation from Isa 40:6, 8 .


A quotation from Ps 34:8 .


A quotation from Isa 28:16 .


A quotation from Ps 118:22 (cf. Matt 21:42 ; Mark 12:10 ; Luke 20:17 ; Acts 4:11 ).


A quotation from Isa 8:14 .


This verse contains various allusions and quotations from Exod 19:5-6; 23:22 (LXX); Isa 43:20-21 ; and Mal 3:17 .


The quotations in v. 10 are from Hos 1:6, 9; 2:23 .


A quotation from Isa 53:9 .


An allusion to Isa 53:7 .


A quotation from Isa 53:4, 12 .


A quotation from Isa 53:5 .


A quotation from Isa 53:6 .


Verses 10-12 are a quotation from Ps 34:12-16 .


The Greek construction here implies that such suffering was not the norm, even though it could happen, and in fact may well have happened to some of the readers (cf. 4:4, 12-19 ).


A quotation from Isa 8:12 .


This passage has been typeset as poetry because many scholars regard this passage as poetic or hymnic. These terms are used broadly to refer to the genre of writing, not to the content. There are two broad criteria for determining if a passage is poetic or hymnic: “(a) stylistic: a certain rhythmical lilt when the passages are read aloud, the presence of parallelismus membrorum (i.e., an arrangement into couplets), the semblance of some metre, and the presence of rhetorical devices such as alliteration, chiasmus , and antithesis; and (b) linguistic: an unusual vocabulary, particularly the presence of theological terms, which is different from the surrounding context” (P. T. O’Brien, Philippians [NIGTC], 188-89). Classifying a passage as hymnic or poetic is important because understanding this genre can provide keys to interpretation. However, not all scholars agree that the above criteria are present in this passage, so the decision to typeset it as poetry should be viewed as a tentative decision about its genre.


The reference to the just suffering for the unjust is an allusion to Isa 53:11-12 .


Put to death in the flesh…made alive in the spirit. The contrast of flesh and spirit is not between two parts of Christ’s person (material versus immaterial) but between two broader modes of existence: the realm of unregenerate earthly life versus eternal heavenly life. The reference may not be to the Holy Spirit directly, but indirectly, since the Spirit permeates and characterizes the spiritual mode of existence. However, ExSyn 343 (n. 76) states “It is often objected that the Holy Spirit cannot be in view because the two datives of v 18 ( σαρκί , πνεύματι [ sarki , pneumati ]) would then have a different syntactical force (sphere, means). But if 1 Pet 3:18 is a hymnic or liturgical fragment, this can be no objection because of ‘poetic license’: poetry is replete with examples of grammatical and lexical license, not the least of which is the use of the same morpho-syntactic categories, in parallel lines, with entirely different senses (note, e.g., the dat. expressions in 1 Tim 3:16 ).”


And preached to the spirits in prison. The meaning of this preaching and the spirits to whom he preached are much debated. It is commonly understood to be: (1) Christ’s announcement of his victory over evil to the fallen angels who await judgment for their role in leading the Noahic generation into sin; this proclamation occurred sometime between Christ’s death and ascension; or (2) Christ’s preaching of repentance through Noah to the unrighteous humans, now dead and confined in hell, who lived in the days of Noah. The latter is preferred because of the temporal indications in v. 20 a and the wider argument of the book. These verses encourage Christians to stand for righteousness and try to influence their contemporaries for the gospel in spite of the suffering that may come to them. All who identify with them and their Savior will be saved from the coming judgment, just as in Noah’s day.


Has finished with sin. The last sentence in v. 1 may refer to Christ as the one who suffered in the flesh (cf. 2:21, 23; 3:18; 4:1 a) and the latter part would then mean, “he has finished dealing with sin.” But it is more likely that it refers to the Christian who suffers unjustly (cf. 2:19-20; 3:14, 17 ). This shows that he has made a break with sin as vs. 2 describes.


In context the phrase those who are dead refers to those now dead who had accepted the gospel while they were still living and had suffered persecution for their faith. Though they “suffered judgment” in this earthly life (i.e., they died, in the midst of physical abuse from the ungodly), they will enjoy life from God in the spiritual, heavenly realm because of the gospel (v. 6 b). It clearly does not assume a second chance for conversion offered to unbelievers who had died; why would Peter urge people to suffer in this life for the sake of the gospel if he believed that mercy would be extended to all the dead in the hereafter (cf. 2:7-8; 4:1-5, 12-19 )?


The statement of v. 8 b, love covers a multitude of sins , is proverbial: It is quoted from Prov 10:12 (cf. Jas 5:20 ). It speaks of the forbearance that comes with love: Christian love is patient and forgiving toward the offenses of a fellow Christian ( Matt 18:21-22 ; 1 Cor 13:4-7 ).


A quotation taken from Isa 11:2 .


In this context younger and elder are terms that combine two meanings: relative age and an official structure of leadership in the church. As in v. 1 , elder here denotes those who exercise spiritual leadership, who for the most part are older in years. Likewise younger means the rest of the community, who for the most part are younger in age, who are urged to accept the authority of their leaders.


A quotation from Prov 3:34 (cf. Jas 4:6 ).


This phrase may be an allusion to Ps 22:13 .


The phrase Through Silvanus means either that Silvanus was the secretary (amanuensis) who assisted Peter in writing or composing the letter (cf. Rom 16:22 ) or that he carried the letter to the churches. The latter sense is more likely since this is the meaning of the Greek wording when it is used elsewhere (cf. Acts 15:23 ; Ignatius, Letter to the Romans 10:1; Letter to the Philadelphians 11:2; Letter to the Smyrnaeans 12:1; Polycarp, Letter to the Philippians 14), though it is perhaps possible that both ideas could be incorporated by this expression. For a detailed argument regarding this issue, see E. R. Richards, “Silvanus Was Not Peter’s Secretary: Theological Bias in Interpreting διὰ Σιλουανοῦ … ἔγραψα ,” JETS 43 (September 2000): 417-32.


Most scholars understand Babylon here to be a figurative reference to Rome. Although in the OT the city of Babylon in Mesopotamia was the seat of tremendous power ( 2 Kgs 24-25 ; ; ), by the time of the NT what was left was an insignificant town, and there is no tradition in Christian history that Peter ever visited there. On the other hand, Christian tradition connects Peter with the church in Rome, and many interpreters think other references to Babylon in the NT refer to Rome as well ( Rev 14:8; 16:19; 17:5; 18:2, 10, 21 ). Thus it is likely Peter was referring to Rome here.


Called. The term καλέω ( kalew ), used here in its participial form, in soteriological contexts when God is the subject, always carries the nuance of effectual calling. That is, the one who is called is not just invited to be saved – he is also and always saved (cf. Rom 8:30 ). Calling takes place at the moment of conversion, while election takes place in eternity past (cf. Eph 1:4 ).


Although the author has borrowed the expression partakers of the divine nature from paganism, his meaning is clearly Christian. He does not mean apotheosis (man becoming a god) in the pagan sense, but rather that believers have an organic connection with God. Because of such a connection, God can truly be called our Father. Conceptually, this bears the same meaning as Paul’s “in Christ” formula. The author’s statement, though startling at first, is hardly different from Paul’s prayer for the Ephesians that they “may be filled up to all the fullness of God” (3:19).


The final virtue or character quality in this list is “love” ( ἀγάπη , agaph ). The word was not used exclusively of Christian or unselfish love in the NT (e.g., the cognate, ἀγαπάω [ agapaw ], is used in John 3:19 of the love of darkness), but in a list such as this in which ἀγάπη is obviously the crescendo, unselfish love is evidently in view. R. Bauckham ( Jude, 2 Peter [WBC], 187) notes that as the crowning virtue, ἀγάπη encompasses all the previous virtues.


Continually increasing. There are evidently degrees of ownership of these qualities, implying degrees of productivity in one’s intimacy with Christ. An idiomatic rendering of the first part of v. 8 would be “For if you can claim ownership of these virtues in progressively increasing amounts…”


When the author says our Lord Jesus Christ revealed this to me , he is no doubt referring to the prophecy that is partially recorded in John 21:18-19 .


There are various interpretations of v. 15 . For example, the author could be saying simply, “I will make every effort that you remember these things.” But the collocation of σπουδάζω ( spoudazw ) with μνήνη ( mnhnh ) suggests a more specific image. R. Bauckham ( Jude, 2 Peter [WBC], 201-2) is right when he notes that these two words together suggest a desire to write some sort of letter or testament. Most commentators recognize the difficulty in seeing the future verb σπουδάσω ( spoudasw ) as referring to 2 Peter itself (the present or aorist would have been expected, i.e., “I have made every effort,” or “I am making every effort”). Some have suggested that Mark’s Gospel is in view. The difficulty with this is threefold: (1) Mark is probably to be dated before 2 Peter, (2) early patristic testimony seems to imply that Peter was the unwitting source behind Mark’s Gospel; and (3) “these things” would seem to refer, in the least, to the prophecy about Peter’s death (absent in Mark). A more plausible suggestion might be that the author was thinking of the ending of John’s Gospel. This is possible because (1) John 21:18-19 is the only other place in the NT that refers to Peter’s death; indeed, it fleshes out the cryptic statement in v. 14 a bit more; (2) both 2 Peter and John were apparently written to Gentiles in and around Asia Minor; (3) both books were probably written after Paul’s death and perhaps even to Paul’s churches (cf. 2 Pet 3:1-2, 15-16 ); and (4) gives the appearance of being added to the end of a finished work. There is thus some possibility that this final chapter was added at the author’s request, in part to encourage Gentile Christians to face impending persecution, knowing that the martyrdom of even (Paul and) Peter was within the purview of God’s sovereignty. That 2 Pet 1:15 alludes to is of course by no means certain, but remains at least the most plausible of the suggestions put forth thus far.


The term grandeur was used most frequently of God’s majesty. In the 1st century, it was occasionally used of the divine majesty of the emperor. 2 Pet 1:1 and 1:11 already include hints of a polemic against emperor-worship (in that “God and Savior” and “Lord and Savior” were used of the emperor).


We in v. 19 is apparently an inclusive “we” (the author and his audience). Such shifts in the first person plural are quite common in epistolary literature (cf., e.g., 2 Cor 10-13 , passim ).


The reference to the morning star constitutes a double entendre. First, the term was normally used to refer to Venus. But the author of course has a metaphorical meaning in mind, as is obvious from the place where the morning star is to rise – “in your hearts.” Most commentators see an allusion to Num 24:17 (“a star shall rise out of Jacob”) in Peter’s words. Early Christian exegesis saw in that passage a prophecy about Christ’s coming. Hence, in this verse Peter tells his audience to heed the OT scriptures which predict the return of Christ, then alludes to one of the passages that does this very thing, all the while running the theme of light on a parallel track. In addition, it may be significant that Peter’s choice of terms here is not the same as is found in the LXX. He has used a Hellenistic word that was sometimes used of emperors and deities, perhaps as a further polemic against the paganism of his day.


The phrase in your hearts is sometimes considered an inappropriate image for the parousia , since the coming of Christ will be visible to all. But Peter’s point has to do with full comprehension of the revelation of Christ, something only believers will experience. Further, his use of light imagery is doing double-duty, suggesting two things at once (i.e., internal guidance to truth or illumination, and OT prophecy about Christ’s return) and hence can not be expected to be consistent with every point he wishes to make.


There will be false teachers among you. Peter uses the same verb, γίνομαι ( ginomai ), in 2 Pet 2:1 as he had used in 1:20 to describe the process of inspiration. He may well be contrasting, by way of a catchword, the two kinds of prophets.


By the use of the future tense ( will infiltrate ), Peter is boldly prophesying the role that false teachers will have before these Gentile believers. It was necessary for him to establish both his own credentials and to anchor his audience’s faith in the written Word before he could get to this point, for these false teachers will question both.


Balaam’s activities are detailed in —24 (see also Num 31:8, 16 ).


Through the rich knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. The implication is not that these people necessarily knew the Lord (in the sense of being saved), but that they were in the circle of those who had embraced Christ as Lord and Savior.


Holy prophets…apostles. The first chapter demonstrated that the OT prophets were trustworthy guides ( 1:19-21 ) and that the NT apostles were also authoritative ( 1:16-18 ). Now, using the same catch phrase found in the Greek text of 1:20 ( τοῦτο πρῶτον γινώσκοντες , touto prwton ginwskontes ), Peter points to specific prophecies of the prophets as an argument against the false teachers.


He does not wish for any to perish. This verse has been a battleground between Arminians and Calvinists. The former argue that God wants all people to be saved, but either through inability or restriction of his own sovereignty does not interfere with peoples’ wills. Some of the latter argue that the “any” here means “any of you ” and that all the elect will repent before the return of Christ, because this is God’s will. Both of these positions have problems. The “any” in this context means “any of you.” (This can be seen by the dependent participle which gives the reason why the Lord is patient “toward you.”) There are hints throughout this letter that the readership may be mixed, including both true believers and others who are “sitting on the fence” as it were. But to make the equation of this readership with the elect is unlikely. This would seem to require, in its historical context, that all of these readers would be saved. But not all who attend church know the Lord or will know the Lord. Simon the Magician, whom Peter had confronted in , is a case in point. This is evident in contemporary churches when a pastor addresses the congregation as “brothers, sisters, saints, etc.,” yet concludes the message with an evangelistic appeal. When an apostle or pastor addresses a group as “Christian” he does not necessarily think that every individual in the congregation is truly a Christian. Thus, the literary context seems to be against the Arminian view, while the historical context seems to be against (one representation of) the Calvinist view. The answer to this conundrum is found in the term “wish” (a participle in Greek from the verb boulomai ). It often represents a mere wish, or one’s desiderative will, rather than one’s resolve. Unless God’s will is viewed on the two planes of his desiderative and decretive will (what he desires and what he decrees), hopeless confusion will result. The scriptures amply illustrate both that God sometimes decrees things that he does not desire and desires things that he does not decree. It is not that his will can be thwarted, nor that he has limited his sovereignty. But the mystery of God’s dealings with humanity is best seen if this tension is preserved. Otherwise, either God will be perceived as good but impotent or as a sovereign taskmaster. Here the idea that God does not wish for any to perish speaks only of God's desiderative will, without comment on his decretive will.


The coming of the day of God. Peter elsewhere describes the coming or parousia as the coming of Christ (cf. 2 Pet 1:16; 3:4 ). The almost casual exchange between “God” and “Christ” in this little book, and elsewhere in the NT, argues strongly for the deity of Christ (see esp. 1:1 ).


The Greek verb used in the phrase strive to be found is the same as is found in v. 10 , translated “laid bare.” In typical Petrine fashion, a conceptual link is made by the same linkage of terms. The point of these two verses thus becomes clear: When the heavens disappear and the earth and its inhabitants are stripped bare before the throne of God, they should strive to make sure that their lives are pure and that they have nothing to hide.


Critics generally assume that 2 Peter is not authentic, partially because in vv. 15-16 Paul is said to have written scripture. It is assumed that a recognition of Paul’s writings as scripture could not have happened until early in the 2nd century. However, in the same breath that Paul is canonized, Peter also calls him “ brother .” This is unparalleled in the 2nd century apocryphal works, as well as early patristic writings, in which the apostles are universally elevated above the author and readers; here, Peter simply says “he’s one of us.”


Paul wrote to you. That Paul had written to these people indicates that they are most likely Gentiles. Further, that Peter is now writing to them suggests that Paul had already died, for Peter was the apostle to the circumcised. Peter apparently decided to write his two letters to Paul’s churches shortly after Paul’s death, both to connect with them personally and theologically (Paul’s gospel is Peter’s gospel) and to warn them of the wolves in sheep’s clothing that would come in to destroy the flock. Thus, part of Peter’s purpose seems to be to anchor his readership on the written documents of the Christian community (both the Old Testament and Paul’s letters) as a safeguard against heretics.


This one incidental line, the rest of the scriptures , links Paul’s writings with scripture. This is thus one of the earliest affirmations of any part of the NT as scripture. Peter’s words were prophetic and were intended as a preemptive strike against the heretics to come.


My little children. The direct address by the author to his readers at the beginning of 2:1 marks a break in the pattern of the opponents’ claims (indicated by the phrase if we say followed by a negative statement in the apodosis, the “then” clause) and the author’s counterclaims (represented by if with a positive statement in the apodosis) made so far in 1:6-10 . The seriousness of this last claim (in 1:10 ) causes the author to interrupt himself to address the readers as his faithful children and to explain to them that while he wants them not to sin, they may be assured that if they do, they can look to Jesus Christ, as their advocate with the Father, to intercede for them. After this, the last of the author’s three counter-claims in 1:5-2:2 is found in the if clause in 2:1 b.


See John 13:34-35 .


The reference to the darkness…passing away and the true light…already shining is an allusion to John 1:5, 1:9, and 8:12 . Because the author sees the victory of light over darkness as something already begun, he is writing Jesus’ commandment to love one another to the readers as a reminder to (1) hold fast to what they have already heard (see 1 John 2:7 ) and (2) not be influenced by the teaching of the opponents.


The one who hates his fellow Christian. The author’s paradigm for the opponents portrays them as those who show hatred for fellow Christians ( Grk “brothers,” but not referring to one’s physical siblings). This charge will be much more fully developed in chap. , where the author will compare the opponents to Cain (who is the model for one who hates a brother, since he ultimately murdered his own brother). In 1 John 3:17 the specific charge against the opponents will be failing to give material aid to a brother in need.


1 John 2:3-11 . The section 2:3-11 contains three claims to intimate knowledge of God, each introduced by the phrase the one who says (participles in the Greek text) in 2:4, 6, and 9 . As with the three claims beginning with “if” in the previous section ( 1:6, 8, 10 ), these indirectly reflect the claims of the opponents. Each claim is followed by the author’s evaluation and its implications.


I am writing to you. The author appears to have been concerned that some of his readers, at least, would accept the claims of the opponents as voiced in 1:6, 8, and 10 . The counterclaims the author has made in 1:7, 9, and 2:1 seem intended to strengthen the readers and reassure them (among other things) that their sins are forgiven. Further assurances of their position here is in keeping with such a theme, and indeed, the topic of reassurance runs throughout the entire letter (see the purpose statement in 5:13 ). Finally, in such a context the warning which follows in 2:15-17 is not out of place because the author is dealing with a community that is discouraged by the controversy which has arisen within it and that is in need of exhortation.


The phrase the evil one is used in John 17:15 as a reference to Satan. Satan is also the referent here and in the four other occurrences in 1 John ( 2:14; 3:12; 5:18, 19 ).


Antichrists are John’s description for the opponents and their false teaching, which is at variance with the apostolic eyewitness testimony about who Jesus is (cf. 1:1-4 ). The identity of these opponents has been variously debated by scholars, with some contending (1) that these false teachers originally belonged to the group of apostolic leaders, but departed from it (“went out from us,” v. 19 ). It is much more likely (2) that they arose from within the Christian communities to which John is writing, however, and with which he identifies himself. This identification can be seen in the interchange of the pronouns “we” and “you” between 1:10 and 2:1 , for example, where “we” does not refer only to John and the other apostles, but is inclusive, referring to both himself and the Christians he is writing to ( 2:1 , “you”).


All of them do not belong to us. The opponents chose to depart rather than remain in fellowship with the community to which the author writes and with which he associates himself. This demonstrates conclusively to the author that they never really belonged to that community at all (in spite of what they were claiming). 1 John 2:19 indicates that the departure was apparently the opponents’ own decision rather than being thrown out or excommunicated. But for John, if they had been genuine believers, they would have remained in fellowship. Now they have gone out into the world, where they belong (compare 1 John 4:5 ).


The promise consists of eternal life , but it is also related to the concept of “remaining” in 2:24 . The person who “remains in the Son and in the Father” thus has this promise of eternal life from Jesus himself. Consistent with this, 1 John 5:12 implies that the believer has this eternal life now , not just in the future, and this in turn agrees with John 5:24 .


The phrase those who are trying to deceive you in 1 John 2:26 is a clear reference to the secessionist opponents mentioned earlier in 1 John 2:19 , who are attempting to deceive the people the author is writing to.


The anointing. The “anointing” ( χρῖσμα , crisma ) which believers have received refers to the indwelling Holy Spirit which has been given to them at their conversion.


The pronoun could refer to God or Jesus Christ, but a reference to Jesus Christ is more likely here.


The pronoun could refer (1) to God or (2) to Jesus Christ, but a reference to Jesus Christ is more likely here.


A reference to Jesus Christ is more likely here. Note the mention of the second coming (second advent) at the end of this verse.


The pronoun him is a clear reference to Jesus Christ (compare John 1:10 ).


Is revealed. It may well be that the use of the same passive verb here (from φανερόω , fanerow ) is intended to suggest to the reader the mention of the parousia (Christ’s second coming) in 2:28 .


The phrase we will be like him, because we will see him just as he is has been explained two ways: (1) believers will really become more like God than they now are, and will do this through seeing God as he really is; or (2) believers will realize that they are already like God, but did not realize it until they see him as he is. One who sees a strong emphasis on realized eschatology in the Gospel of John and the Epistles might opt for the second view, since it downplays the difference between what believers already are in the present age and what they will become in the next. It seems better, though, in light of the statement in 3:2 a that “what we will be has not yet been revealed” and because of the reference to Christ’s parousia in 2:28 , that the author intends to distinguish between the present state of believers and what they will be like in the future. Thus the first view is better, that believers really will become more like God than they are now, as a result of seeing him as he really is.


The verb translated purifies ( ἁγνίζω , Jagnizw ) is somewhat unusual here, since it is not common in the NT, and occurs only once in the Gospel of John (11:55). One might wonder why the author did not use the more common verb ἁγιάζω ( Jagiazw ), as in John 17:19 , where Jesus prays, “On their behalf I consecrate myself, so that they may also be consecrated in the truth.” It is possible that there is some overlap between the two verbs and thus this is another example of Johannine stylistic variation, but the verb ἁγνίζω is used in the context of John 11:55 , which describes ritual purification for the Passover, a usage also found in the LXX ( Exod 19:10-11 , Num 8:21 ). In this context the use of ἁγνίζω would remind the readers that, if they have the future hope of entering the Father’s presence (“seeing him as he is” in 3:2 ), they need to prepare themselves by living a purified lifestyle now, just as Jesus lived during his earthly life and ministry (cf. 2:6 again). This serves to rebut the opponents’ claims to moral indifference, that what the Christian does in the present life is of no consequence.


1 John 3:1-3 . All of 3:1-3 is a parenthesis within the present section in which the author reflects on what it means to be fathered by God, a subject he has mentioned at the end of 2:29 . The sequence of the argument is then resumed by 3:4 , which is in opposition to 2:29 .


Everyone who practices sin. In contrast to the πᾶς ὁ ( pas Jo ) + participle construction in 3:3 ( everyone who has , πᾶς ὁ ἔχων [ pas Jo ecwn ]) which referred to believers, the use of everyone who practices sin ( πᾶς ὁ ποιῶν τὴν ἁμαρτίαν [ pas Jo poiwn thn Jamartian ]) here refers to the author’s opponents. A similar use, referring to the opponents’ denial of the Son, is found in 2:23 .


The Greek word ἀνομία ( anomia ) is often translated “iniquity” or “lawlessness” and in the LXX refers particularly to transgression of the law of Moses. In Jewish thought the ideas of sin ( ἁμαρτία , Jamartia ) and lawlessness or iniquity ( ἀνομία ) were often equated because sin involved a violation of the Mosaic law and hence lawlessness. For example, Ps 51:5 LXX sets the two in parallel, and Paul in Rom 4:7 (quoting Ps 32:1 ) does the same. For the author, it is not violation of the Mosaic law that results in lawlessness, since he is writing to Christians. The ‘law’ for the author is the law of love, as given by Jesus in the new commandment of John 13:34-35 . This is the command to love one’s brother, a major theme of 1 John and the one specific sin in the entire letter which the opponents are charged with ( 3:17 ). Since the author has already labeled the opponents “antichrists” in 2:18 , it may well be that he sees in their iniquitous behavior of withdrawing from the community and refusing to love the brethren a foreshadowing of the apocalyptic iniquity of the end times (cf. 2 Thess 2:3-8 ). In Matt 24:11-12 Jesus foretold that false prophets would arise in the end times (cf. 1 John 4:1 ), that lawlessness ( anomia ) would increase, and that “the love of many will grow cold” (which would certainly fit the author’s portrait of the opponents here).


The one who practices righteousness. The participle ( ὁ ποιῶν , Jo poiwn ) + noun constructions in 3:7 and in 3:8 a, the first positive and the second negative, serve to emphasize the contrast between the true Christians (“the one who practices righteousness”) and the opponents (“the one who practices sin,” 3:8 a).


The person who practices sin is of the devil. 1 John 3:10 and John 8:44 might be cited as parallels, because these speak of opponents as the devil’s “children.” However, it is significant that the author of 1 John never speaks of the opponents as “fathered by the devil” in the same sense as Christians are “fathered by God” ( 3:9 ). A concept of evildoers as “fathered” by the devil in the same sense as Christians are fathered by God would imply a much more fully developed Gnosticism with its dualistic approach to humanity. The author of 1 John carefully avoids saying that the opponents are “fathered by the devil,” because in Johannine theology not to be fathered by God is to be fathered only by the flesh ( John 1:13 ). This is a significant piece of evidence that 1 John predates the more fully developed Gnosticism of the 2nd century. What the author does say is that the opponents (“the one who practices sin”) are from the devil, in the sense that they belong to him and have given him their allegiance.


For this is the gospel message…that we should love one another. The structure of this verse is parallel to 1:5 , indicating the beginning of a second major section of the letter.


Since the author states that Cain … was of the evil one ( ἐκ τοῦ πονηροῦ , ek tou ponhrou ), in the immediate context this imagery serves as an illustration of 3:8 a: The person who practices sin is of the devil ( ἐκ τοῦ διαβόλου , ek tou diabolou ). This is similar to John 8:44 , where Jesus told his opponents “you people are from your father the devil…[who] was a murderer from the beginning.” In both Jewish and early Christian writings Cain is a model for those who deliberately disbelieve; Testament of Benjamin 7:5 looks forward to the punishment of those who “are like Cain in the envy and hatred of brothers.” It is not difficult to see why the author of 1 John used Cain here as a model for the opponents in light of their failure to “love the brothers” (see 1 John 3:17 ).


Cf. John 15:18 , where this phrase also occurs.


Cf. John 5:24 , where this phrase also occurs.


The one who does not love remains in death. Again, the author has the secessionist opponents in view. Their refusal to show love for the brothers demonstrates that they have not made the transition from (spiritual) death to (spiritual) life, but instead have remained in a state of (spiritual) death.