The “weak” individual mentioned here is apparently the farmer who has little or no military prowess or prior fighting experience. Under ordinary circumstances such a person would be ill-prepared for assuming the role of a soldier. However, in the scene that Joel is describing here even the most unlikely candidate will become a participant to be reckoned with in this final conflict.


The immediacy of judgment upon wickedness is likened to the urgency required for a harvest that has reached its pinnacle of development. When the harvest is completely ripe, there can be no delay by the reapers in gathering the harvest. In a similar way, Joel envisions a time when human wickedness will reach such a heightened degree that there can be no further stay of divine judgment (cf. the “fullness of time” language in Gal 4:4 ).


The decision referred to here is not a response on the part of the crowd, but the verdict handed out by the divine judge.


The language used here is a hyperbolic way of describing both a bountiful grape harvest (“the mountains will drip with juice”) and an abundance of cattle (“the hills will flow with milk”). In addition to being hyperbolic, the language is also metonymical (effect for cause).


This refers to a well-known earthquake that occurred during the first half of the 8th century b.c . According to a generally accepted dating system, Uzziah was a co-regent with his father Amaziah from 792-767 b.c. and ruled independently from 767-740 b.c . Jeroboam II was a co-regent with his father Joash from 793-782 b.c. and ruled independently from 782-753 b.c . Since only Uzziah and Jeroboam are mentioned in the introduction it is likely that Amos’ mission to Israel and the earthquake which followed occurred between 767-753 b.c . The introduction validates the genuine character of Amos’ prophetic ministry in at least two ways: (1) Amos was not a native Israelite or a prophet by trade. Rather he was a herdsman in Tekoa, located in Judah. His mere presence in the northern kingdom as a prophet was evidence that he had been called by God (see 7:14-15 ). (2) The mighty earthquake shortly after Amos’ ministry would have been interpreted as an omen or signal of approaching judgment. The clearest references to an earthquake are 1:1 and 9:1, 5 . It is possible that the verb הָפַךְ ( hafakh , “overturn”) at 3:13-15, 4:11, 6:11, and 8:8 also refers to an earthquake, as might the descriptions at 2:13 and 6:9-10 . Evidence of a powerful earthquake has been correlated with a destruction layer at Hazor and other sites. Its lasting impact is evident by its mention in Zech 14:5 and 2 Chr 26:16-21 . Earthquake imagery appears in later prophets as well (cf. D. N. Freedman and A. Welch, “Amos’s Earthquake and Israelite Prophecy,” Scripture and Other Artifacts , 188-98). On the other hand, some of these verses in Amos could allude to the devastation that would be caused by the imminent military invasion.


The Lord , in his role of warrior-king, is compared to a lion. See 3:4, 8 .


Carmel was a region known for its abundant plants and trees. See Isa 33:9; 35:2 ; Jer 50:19 .


Loss of a land’s fertility is frequently associated with judgment in the OT and ancient Near Eastern literature.


Ben-hadad may refer to Hazael’s son and successor ( 2 Kgs 13:3, 24 ) or to an earlier king (see ), perhaps the ruler whom Hazael assassinated when he assumed power.


The bar on the city gate symbolizes the city’s defenses and security.


According to Amos 9:7 , the Arameans originally came from Kir . The Lord threatens to reverse their history and send them back there.


Gaza was one of the five major Philistine cities (along with Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, and Gath). It was considered to mark the southern limit of Canaan at the point on the coast where it was located ( Gen 10:19 ).


The city wall symbolizes the city’s defenses and security.


Ashdod was one of the five major Philistine cities (along with Ashkelon, Ekron, Gaza, and Gath).


Ashkelon was one of the five major Philistine cities (along with Ashdod, Ekron, Gaza, and Gath).


Ekron was one of the five major Philistine cities (along with Ashdod, Ashkelon, Gaza, and Gath).


A treaty of brotherhood . In the ancient Near Eastern world familial terms were sometimes used to describe treaty partners. In a treaty between superior and inferior parties, the lord would be called “father” and the subject “son.” The partners in a treaty between equals referred to themselves as “brothers.” For biblical examples, see 1 Kgs 9:13; 20:32-33 .


It is likely that “brother” refers here to a treaty partner (see the note on the word “brotherhood” in 1:9 ). However, it is possible, if Israel is in view, that Edom’s ancient blood relationship to God’s people is alluded to here. Cf. NCV, NLT “their relatives, the Israelites.”


Teman was an important region (or perhaps city) in Edom.


Bozrah was a city located in northern Edom.


The Ammonites ripped open Gilead’s pregnant women in conjunction with a military invasion designed to expand their territory. Such atrocities, although repugnant, were not uncommon in ancient Near Eastern warfare.


Rabbah was the Ammonite capital.


The Moabites apparently desecrated the tomb of an Edomite king and burned his bones into a calcined substance which they then used as plaster (cf. Deut 27:2, 4 ). See S. M. Paul, Amos (Hermeneia), 72. Receiving a proper burial was very important in this culture. Desecrating a tomb or a deceased individual’s bones was considered an especially heinous act.


The destruction of Moab by fire is an example of a judgment in kind – as the Moabites committed the crime of “burning,” so the Lord will punish them by setting them on fire.


Kerioth was an important Moabite city. See Jer 48:24, 41 .


The ram’s horn (used as a trumpet) was blown to signal the approaching battle.


Most interpreters see some type of sexual immorality here (cf. KJV, NASB, NIV, NCV, NRSV, TEV, CEV, NLT), even though the Hebrew phrase הָלַךְ אֶל ( halakh ’ el , “go to”) never refers elsewhere to sexual intercourse. (The usual idiom is בוֹא אֶל [ bo ’ ’ el ]. However, S. M. Paul ( Amos [Hermeneia], 82) attempts to develop a linguistic case for a sexual connotation here.) The precise identification of the “girl” in question is not clear. Some see the referent as a cultic prostitute (cf. NAB; v. 8 suggests a cultic setting), but the term נַעֲרָה ( na ’ arah ) nowhere else refers to a prostitute. Because of the contextual emphasis on social oppression, some suggest the exploitation of a slave girl is in view. H. Barstad argues that the “girl” is the hostess at a pagan מַרְזֵחַ ( marzeakh ) banquet (described at some length in 6:4-7 ). In his view the sin described here is not sexual immorality, but idolatry (see H. Barstad, The Religious Polemics of Amos [VTSup], 33-36). In this case, one might translate, “Father and son go together to a pagan banquet.” In light of this cultic context, F. I. Andersen and D. N. Freedman argue that this is a reference to a specific female deity (“the Girl”) and correlate this verse with 8:14 ( Amos [AB], 318-19).


Nazirites were strictly forbidden to drink wine ( Num 6:2-3 ).


The rhetorical questions in vv. 3-5 expect the answer, “No, of course not!” Those in v. 6 anticipate the answer, “Yes, of course they do/he is.” They all draw attention to the principle of cause and effect and lay the logical foundation for the argument in vv. 7-8 . Also note the progression from a general question in v. 3 to the “meetings” of two animals (v. 4 ), to that of an animal and a human trap (v. 5 ), to a climax with the confrontation with the Lord (v. 6 ). Each of these meetings is disastrous.


The roar of the lion is here a metaphor for impending judgment (see 1:2 ; cf. 3:4, 12 ). Verses 7-8 justify Amos’ prophetic ministry and message of warning and judgment. The people should expect a prophetic message prior to divine action.


Who can refuse to prophesy? When a message is revealed, the prophet must speak, and the news of impending judgment should cause people to fear.


Samaria might refer here both to the region and to the capital city (later known as Sebaste). On the other hand, there actually are hills that surround the mound upon which the city was built. The implication is that the nations can come and sit and see from those hills the sin of the capital city and its judgment. map For location of the city see Map2-B1 ; Map4-D3 ; Map5-E2 ; Map6-A4 ; Map7-C1 .


The verb translated salvaged , though often used in a positive sense of deliverance from harm, is here employed in a sarcastic manner. A shepherd would attempt to salvage part of an animal to prove that a predator had indeed killed it. In this way he could prove that he had not stolen the missing animal and absolve himself from any responsibility to repay the owner (see Exod 22:12-13 ).


The horns of an ancient altar projected upwards from the four corners and resembled an animal’s horns in appearance. Fugitives could seek asylum by grabbing hold of these corners (see Exod 21:14 ; 1 Kgs 1:50; 2:28 ). When the altar’s horns were cut off, there would be no place of asylum left for the Lord ’s enemies.


The expression cows of Bashan is used by the prophet to address the wealthy women of Samaria, who demand that their husbands satisfy their cravings. The derogatory language perhaps suggests that they, like the livestock of Bashan, were well fed, ironically in preparation for the coming slaughter. This phrase is sometimes cited to critique the book’s view of women.


Some commentators relate this scene to the description of the marzeah feast of 6:3-6 , in which drinking played a prominent part (see the note at 6:6 ).


Bethel and Gilgal were important formal worship centers because of their importance in Israel’s history. Here the Lord ironically urges the people to visit these places so they can increase their sin against him. Their formal worship, because it was not accompanied by social justice, only made them more guilty in God’s sight by adding hypocrisy to their list of sins. Obviously, theirs was a twisted view of the Lord. They worshiped a god of their own creation in order to satisfy their religious impulses (see 4:5 : “For you love to do this”). Note that none of the rituals listed in 4:4-5 have to do with sin. map For location see Map4-G4 ; Map5-C1 ; Map6-E3 ; Map7-D1 ; Map8-G3 .


See the note on Bethel earlier in this verse.


For the background of the thank offering of bread made with yeast , see Lev 7:13 .


Rain…three months before the harvest refers to the rains of late March-early April.


The following verses explain what it meant to seek the Lord . Israel was to abandon the mere formalism and distorted view of God and reality that characterized religious activity at the worship sites, as well as the social injustice that permeated Israelite society. Instead the people were to repent and promote justice in the land. This call to seek the Lord echoes the challenge in 4:13 to prepare to meet him as he truly is.


Ironically, Israel was to seek after the Lord, but not at Bethel (the name Bethel means “the house of God” in Hebrew). map For location see Map4-G4 ; Map5-C1 ; Map6-E3 ; Map7-D1 ; Map8-G3 .


Here Joseph (= Ephraim and Manasseh), as the most prominent of the Israelite tribes, represents the entire northern kingdom.


In v. 7 the prophet begins to describe the guilty Israelites, but then interrupts his word picture with a parenthetical, but powerful, description of the judge they must face (vv. 8-9 ). He resumes his description of the sinners in v. 10 .


In ancient Israelite culture, legal disputes were resolved in the city gate , where the town elders met.


Legal disputes were resolved in the city gate , where the town elders met.


Legal disputes were resolved in the city gate (see the note in v. 12 ). This repetition of this phrase serves to highlight a deliberate contrast to the injustices cited in vv. 11-13 .


Joseph (= Ephraim and Manasseh), as the most prominent of the Israelite tribes, represents the entire northern kingdom.


The expression pass through your midst alludes to Exod 12:12 , where the Lord announced he would “pass through” Egypt and bring death to the Egyptian firstborn.


Zion is a reference to Jerusalem.


The stringed instruments mentioned here are probably harps (cf. NIV, NRSV) or lutes (cf. NEB).


Perhaps some religious rite is in view, or the size of the bowls is emphasized (i.e., bowls as large as sacrificial bowls).


The ruin of Joseph may refer to the societal disintegration in Israel, or to the effects of the impending judgment.


Religious banquets . This refers to the מַרְזֵחַ ( marzeakh ), a type of pagan religious banquet popular among the upper class of Israel at this time and apparently associated with mourning. See P. King, Amos, Hosea, Micah , 137-61; J. L. McLaughlin, The “Marzeah” in the Prophetic Literature (VTSup). Scholars debate whether at this banquet the dead were simply remembered or actually venerated in a formal, cultic sense.


The botanical imagery, when juxtaposed with the preceding rhetorical questions, vividly depicts and emphasizes how the Israelites have perverted justice and violated the created order by their morally irrational behavior.


Karnaim was also located across the Jordan River. The name in Hebrew means “double horned.” Since an animal’s horn was a symbol of strength (see Deut 33:17 ), the Israelites boasted in this victory over a town whose very name symbolized military power.


Once again there is irony in the divine judgment. The oppressive nation itself will suffer oppression. The verb “oppress” ( לָחַץ , lakhats ) in this verse is not the same as that used in 4:1 ( עָשַׁק , ’ ashaq ).


Lebo-Hamath refers to the northern border of Israel, the Stream of the Arabah to its southern border. See 2 Kgs 14:25 . Through this invader the Lord would reverse the victories and territorial expansion Israel experienced during the reign of Jeroboam II.


The crops planted late (consisting of vegetables) were planted in late January-early March and sprouted in conjunction with the spring rains of March-April. For a discussion of the ancient Israelite agricultural calendar, see O. Borowski, Agriculture in Iron Age Israel , 31-44.


It is possible that herdsmen agreed to care for sycamore fig trees in exchange for grazing rights. See P. King, Amos, Hosea, Micah , 116-17. Since these trees do not grow around Tekoa but rather in the lowlands, another option is that Amos owned other property outside his hometown. In this case, this verse demonstrates his relative wealth and is his response to Amaziah; he did not depend on prophecy as a profession (v. 13 ).


The basket of summer fruit (also in the following verse) probably refers to figs from the summer crop, which ripens in August-September. See O. Borowski, Agriculture in Iron Age Israel , 115.


Apparently work was prohibited during the new moon festival , just as it was on the Sabbath.


In an oath one appeals to something permanent to emphasize one’s commitment to the promise. Here the Lord sarcastically swears by the arrogance of Jacob , which he earlier had condemned ( 6:8 ), something just as enduring as the Lord ’s own life (see 6:8 ) or unchanging character (see 4:2 ). Other suggestions include that the Lord is swearing by the land, his most valuable possession (cf. Isa 4:2 ; Ps 47:4 [ 47:5 HT]); that this is a divine epithet analogous to “the Glory of Israel” ( 1 Sam 15:29 ); or that an ellipsis should be understood here, in which case the meaning is the same as that of 6:8 (“The Lord has sworn [by himself] against the arrogance of Jacob”).


Your god is not identified. It may refer to another patron deity who was not the God of Israel, a local manifestation of the Lord that was worshiped by the people there, or, more specifically, the golden calf image erected in Dan by Jeroboam I (see 1 Kgs 12:28-30 ).


The altar is perhaps the altar at Bethel.


If the article indicates a definite serpent, then the mythological Sea Serpent , symbolic of the world’s chaotic forces, is probably in view. See Job 26:13 and Isa 27:1 (where it is also called Leviathan). Elsewhere in the OT this serpent is depicted as opposing the Lord , but this text implies that even this powerful enemy of God is ultimately subject to his sovereign will.


See Amos 8:8 , which is very similar to this verse.


Verse 6 a pictures the entire universe as a divine palace founded on the earth and extending into the heavens.


Caphtor may refer to the island of Crete.


They probably refers to the Israelites or to the Davidic rulers of the future.


The plowman will catch up to the reaper . Plowing occurred in October-November, and harvesting in April-May (see P. King, Amos, Hosea, Micah , 109.) But in the future age of restored divine blessing, there will be so many crops the reapers will take all summer to harvest them, and it will be time for plowing again before the harvest is finished.


When the grapes had been harvested, they were placed in a press where workers would stomp on them with their feet and squeeze out the juice. For a discussion of grape harvesting technique, see O. Borowski, Agriculture in Iron Age Israel , 110-12.


The grape harvest occurred in August-September, planting in November-December (see P. King, Amos, Hosea, Micah , 109). But in the future age described here there will be so many grapes the workers who stomp them will still be working when the next planting season arrives.


The date of the book of Obadiah is very difficult to determine. Since there is no direct indication of chronological setting clearly suggested by the book itself, and since the historical identity of the author is uncertain as well, a possible date for the book can be arrived at only on the basis of internal evidence. When did the hostile actions of Edom against Judah that are described in this book take place? Many nineteenth-century scholars linked the events of the book to a historical note found in 2 Kgs 8:20 (cf. 2 Chr 21:16-17 ): “In [Jehoram’s] days Edom rebelled from under the hand of Judah and established a king over themselves.” If this is the backdrop against which Obadiah should be read, it would suggest a ninth-century b.c. date for the book, since Jehoram reigned ca. 852-841 b.c. But the evidence presented for this view is not entirely convincing, and most contemporary Old Testament scholars reject a ninth-century scenario. A more popular view, held by many biblical scholars from Luther to the present, understands the historical situation presupposed in the book to be the Babylonian invasion of Judah in the sixth century (cf. Ps 137:7 ; Lam 4:18-22 ; Ezek 25:12-14; 35:1-15 ). Understood in this way, Obadiah would be describing a situation in which the Edomites assisted in the Babylonian sack of Jerusalem. Although it must be admitted that a sixth-century setting for the book of Obadiah cannot be proven, the details of the book fit reasonably well into such a context. Other views on the dating of the book, such as an eighth-century date in the time of Ahaz (ca. 732-716 b.c. ) or a fifth-century date in the postexilic period, are less convincing. Parallels between the book of Obadiah and Jer 49:1-22 clearly suggest some kind of literary dependence, but it is not entirely clear whether Jeremiah drew on Obadiah or whether Obadiah drew upon Jeremiah, In any case, the close relationship between Obadiah and might suggest the sixth-century setting.


The name Obadiah in Hebrew means “servant of the Lord .” A dozen or so individuals in the OT have this name, none of whom may be safely identified with the author of this book. In reality we know very little about this prophet with regard to his exact identity or historical circumstances.


The name Edom derives from a Hebrew root that means “red.” Edom was located to the south of the Dead Sea in an area with numerous rocky crags that provided ideal military advantages for protection. Much of the sandstone of this area has a reddish color. The Edomites were descendants of Esau, the brother of Jacob ( Gen 25:19-26 ).


Heb “I will make you small among the nations” (so NAB, NASB, NIV); NRSV “least among the nations”; NCV “the smallest of nations.”


The eagle was often used in the ancient Near East as a symbol of strength and swiftness.


Obadiah uses two illustrations to show the totality of Edom’s approaching destruction. Both robbers and harvesters would have left at least something behind. Such will not be the case, however, with the calamity that is about to befall Edom. A virtually identical saying appears in Jer 49:9-10 .


Teman , like Sela, was a prominent city of Edom. The name Teman is derived from the name of a grandson of Esau (cf. Gen 36:11 ). Here it is a synecdoche of part for whole, standing for all of Edom.


Casting lots seems to be a way of deciding who would gain control over material possessions and enslaved peoples following a military victory.


The term יוֹם ( yom , “day”) is repeated ten times in vv. 11-14 referring to the time period when Judah/Jerusalem suffered calamity which Edom exploited for its own sinful gain. In each of those cases יוֹם was qualified by a following genitive to describe Judah’s plight, e.g., “in the day of your brother’s calamity” (v. 12 ). Here it appears again but now followed by the divine name to describe the time of God’s judgment against Edom for its crimes against humanity: “the day of the Lord .” In the present translation, the expression בְּיוֹם ( bÿyom ; literally, “In the day of”) was rendered “When…” in vv. 11-14 . However, here it is translated more literally because the expression “the day of the Lord ” is a well-known technical expression for a time of divine intervention in judgment. While this expression sometimes refers to the final eschatological day of God’s judgment, it may also refer occasionally to historical acts of judgment.


God’s judgment would not be confined to Edom. Edom would certainly be punished in just measure for its wrongdoing, but “the day of the Lord” would also encompass judgment of the nations (v. 15 ).


This reference to drinking portrays the profane activities of those who had violated Jerusalem’s sanctity. The following reference to drinking on the part of the nations portrays God’s judgment upon them. They will drink, as it were, from the cup of divine retribution.


The judgment is compared here to intoxicating wine, which the nations are forced to keep drinking (v. 16 ). Just as an intoxicating beverage eventually causes the one drinking it to become disoriented and to stagger, so God’s judgment would cause the panic-stricken nations to stumble around in confusion. This extended metaphor is paralleled in Jer 49:12 which describes God’s imminent judgment on Edom, “If even those who did not deserve to drink from the cup of my wrath have to drink from it, do you think you will go unpunished? You will not go unpunished, but you also will certainly drink from the cup of my wrath.” There are numerous parallels between Obadiah and the oracle against Edom in Jer 49:1-22 , so perhaps the latter should be used to help understand the enigmatic metaphor here in v. 16 .


The verb יָרַשׁ ( yarash , “to take possession of [something]”) which is repeated three times in vv. 19-20 for emphasis, often implies a violent means of acquisition, such as through military conquest. Obadiah here pictures a dramatic reversal: Judah’s enemies, who conquered them then looted all her valuable possessions, will soon be conquered by the Judeans who will in turn take possession of their valuables. The punishment will fit the crime.


Gilead is a mountainous region on the eastern side of the Jordan River in what is today the country of Jordan.


Zarephath was a Phoenician coastal city located some ten miles south of Sidon.


The exact location of Sepharad is uncertain. Suggestions include a location in Spain, or perhaps Sparta in Greece, or perhaps Sardis in Asia Minor. For inscriptional evidence that bears on this question see E. Lipinski, “ Obadiah 20 ,” VT 23 (1973): 368-70. The reason for mentioning this location in v. 20 seems to be that even though it was far removed from Jerusalem, the Lord will nonetheless enable the Jewish exiles there to return and participate in the restoration of Israel that Obadiah describes.


Nineveh was the last capital city of ancient Assyria. Occupying about 1800 acres, it was located on the east bank of the Tigris River across from the modern city of Mosul, Iraq. The site includes two tels, Nebi Yunus and Kouyunjik, which have been excavated on several occasions. See A. H. Layard, Nineveh and Its Remains ; R. C. Thompson and R. W. Hutchinson, A Century of Exploration at Nineveh ; G. Waterfield, Layard of Nineveh . Preliminary reports of limited excavations in 1987 and 1989 appear in Mar Sóipri 1:2 (1988): 1-2; 2:2 (1989): 1-2; 4:1 (1991): 1-3. Also see D. J. Wiseman, “Jonah’s Nineveh,” TynBul 30 (1979): 29-51.


The term wickedness is personified here; it is pictured as ascending heavenward into the very presence of God. This figuratively depicts how God became aware of their evil – it had ascended into heaven right into his presence.


The English word lots is a generic term. In some cultures the procedure for “casting lots” is to “draw straws” so that the person who receives the short straw is chosen. In other situations a colored stone or a designated playing card might be picked at random. In Jonah’s case, small stones were probably used.


In the ancient Near East, casting lots was a custom used to try to receive a revelation from the gods about a particular situation. The Phoenician sailors here cried out to their gods and cast lots in the hope that one of their gods might reveal the identity of the person with whom he was angry. CEV has well captured the sentiment of v.7b: “‘Let’s ask our gods to show us who caused all this trouble.’ It turned out to be Jonah.”


The first two times that Jonah is said to be running away from the Lord ( 1:3 ), Hebrew word order puts this phrase last. Now in the third occurrence ( 1:10 ), it comes emphatically before the verb that describes Jonah’s action. The sailors were even more afraid once they had heard who it was that Jonah had offended.


The word translated row is used in Ezekiel to describe digging through a wall ( Ezek 8:8; 12:5, 7, 12 ). Its use in Jonah pictures the sailors digging into the water with their oars as hard as they could.


The word for land here is associated with a Hebrew verb meaning “to be dry” and is the same noun used in v. 9 of dry ground in contrast with the sea, both made by the Lord (see also Gen 1:9-10 ; Exod 4:9; 14:16, 22, 29 ; Jonah 2:10 ).


Beginning with 1:17 , the verse numbers through 2:10 in the English Bible differ from the verse numbers in the Hebrew text ( BHS ), with 1:17 ET = 2:1 HT, 2:1 ET = 2:2 HT, etc., through 2:10 ET = 2:11 HT.


The eight verses of Jonah’s prayer in Hebrew contain twenty-seven first-person pronominal references to himself. There are fifteen second- or third-person references to the Lord .


Sheol was a name for the place of residence of the dead, the underworld (see Job 7:9-10 ; Isa 38:17-18 ). Jonah pictures himself in the belly of Sheol, its very center – in other words he is as good as dead.


Verses 3 and 5 multiply terms describing Jonah’s watery plight. The images used in v. 3 appear also in 2 Sam 22:5-6 ; Pss 42:7; 51:11; 69:1-2, 14-15; 88:6-7; 102:10 .


Jonah pictures himself as being at the very gates of the netherworld (v. 6 b) and now within the Pit itself (v. 6 c). He is speaking rhetorically, for he had not actually died. His point is that he was as good as dead if God did not intervene immediately. See Pss 7:15; 30:3; 103:4 ; Ezek 19:3-4, 8 .


For similar ideas see 2 Chr 30:27 ; Pss 77:3; 142:3; 143:4-5 .


The commands of 1:2 are repeated here. See the note there on the combination of “arise” and “go.”


The people of Nineveh believed in God… . Verse 5 provides a summary of the response in Nineveh; the people of all ranks believed and gave evidence of contrition by fasting and wearing sackcloth ( 2 Sam 12:16, 19-23 ; 1 Kgs 21:27-29 ; Neh 9:1-2 ). Then vv. 6-9 provide specific details, focusing on the king’s reaction. The Ninevites’ response parallels the response of the pagan sailors in 1:6 and 13-16 .


The king expresses his uncertainty whether Jonah’s message constituted a conditional announcement or an unconditional decree. emphasizes that God sometimes gives people an opportunity to repent when they hear an announcement of judgment. However, as Amos and Isaiah learned, if a people refused to repent over a period of time, the patience of God could be exhausted. The offer of repentance in a conditional announcement of judgment can be withdrawn and in its place an unconditional decree of judgment issued. In many cases it is difficult to determine on the front end whether or not a prophetic message of coming judgment is conditional or unconditional, thus explaining the king’s uncertainty.


Jonah is precisely correct in his listing of the Lord ’s attributes. See Exod 34:6-7 ; Num 14:18-19 ; 2 Chr 30:9 ; Neh 9:17, 31-32 ; Pss 86:3-8, 15; 103:2-13; 116:5 (note the parallels to in Ps 116:1-4 ); 145:8 ; Neh 9:17 ; Joel 2:13 . tn Heb “calamity.” The noun רָעָה ( ra ’ ah , “calamity, disaster”) functions as a metonymy of result – the cause being the threatened judgment (e.g., Exod 32:12, 14 ; 2 Sam 24:16 ; Jer 18:8; 26:13, 19; 42:10 ; Joel 2:13 ; Jonah 4:2 ). The classic statement of God’s willingness to relent from judgment when a sinful people repent is Jer 18:1-11 .


Apparently Jonah hoped that he might have persuaded the Lord to “change his mind” again (see 3:8-10 ) and to judge Nineveh after all.


The mountains will disintegrate…the valleys will be split in two . This imagery pictures an earthquake and accompanying landslide.


The place name Shaphir means “pleasant” in Hebrew.


The place name Beth Ezel means “house of nearness” or “house of proximity” in Hebrew.


The place name Maroth sounds like the Hebrew word for “bitter.”


The place name Lachish sounds like the Hebrew word for “team [of horses].”


The epithet Daughter Zion pictures the city of Jerusalem as a young lady.


The place name Achzib ( אַכְזִיב , ’ akhziv , “place on the dried up river”; see HALOT 45 s.v. אַכְזָב ) creates a word play on the similar sounding term כָּזָב ( kazav , “lie, deception”; HALOT 468 s.v. כָּזָב ). Like the dried up river upon which its name was based, the city of Achzib would fail to help the kings of Israel in their time of need.


Because of the enemy invasion, Achzib would not be able to deliver soldiers for the army and/or services normally rendered to the crown.


The place name Mareshah sounds like the Hebrew word for “conqueror.”


The prophet Micah speaks here and contrasts himself with the mercenaries just denounced by the Lord in the preceding verses.


The pronoun Her refers to Jerusalem (note the previous line).


Instead of referring to the large plow as a whole, the plowshare is simply the metal tip which actually breaks the earth and cuts the furrow.


This implement was used to prune the vines, i.e., to cut off extra leaves and young shoots (M. Klingbeil, NIDOTTE 1:1117-18). It was a short knife with a curved hook at the end sharpened on the inside like a sickle.


The exiles of the nation are compared to lame and injured sheep.


The city of David, located within Jerusalem, is addressed as Daughter Zion . As the home of the Davidic king, who was Israel’s shepherd ( Ps 78:70-72 ), the royal citadel could be viewed metaphorically as the watchtower of the flock.


Jerusalem ( Daughter Zion at the beginning of the verse; cf. 4:8 ) is here compared to a powerful ox which crushes the grain on the threshing floor with its hooves .


Beginning with 5:1 , the verse numbers through 5:15 in the English Bible differ by one from the verse numbers in the Hebrew text ( BHS ), with 5:1 ET = 4:14 HT, 5:2 ET = 5:1 HT, 5:3 ET = 5:2 HT, etc., through 5:15 ET = 5:14 HT. From 6:1 the verse numbers in the English Bible and the Hebrew Bible are again the same.


Ephrathah is either an alternate name for Bethlehem or the name of the district in which Bethlehem was located. See Ruth 4:11 . map For location of Bethlehem see Map5-B1 ; Map7-E2 ; Map8-E2 ; Map10-B4 .


The woman in labor . Personified, suffering Jerusalem is the referent. See 4:9-10 .


Gives birth . The point of the figurative language is that Jerusalem finally finds relief from her suffering. See 4:10 .


The numbers seven and eight here symbolize completeness and emphasize that Israel will have more than enough military leadership and strength to withstand the Assyrian advance.


According to Gen 10:8-12 , Nimrod , who was famous as a warrior and hunter, founded Assyria.


As in some ancient Near Eastern treaties, the mountains are personified as legal witnesses that will settle the dispute between God and Israel.


With what should I enter the Lord ’s presence? The prophet speaks again, playing the role of an inquisitive worshiper who wants to know what God really desires from his followers.


What the Lord really wants from you . Now the prophet switches roles and answers the hypothetical worshiper’s question. He makes it clear that the Lord desires proper attitudes more than ritual and sacrifice.


Darkness represents judgment; light (also in v. 9 ) symbolizes deliverance. The Lord is the source of the latter.


Personified Jerusalem declares her confidence in vv. 8-10 ; in this verse she is assured that she will indeed be vindicated.


The regions of Bashan and Gilead , located in Transjordan, were noted for their rich grazing lands.


I will show you miraculous deeds . In this verse the Lord responds to the petition of v. 14 with a brief promise of deliverance.


In this metaphor the Lord disposes of Israel’s sins by throwing them into the waters of the sea (here symbolic of chaos).


The “sea” is personified as an antagonistic enemy, representing the wicked forces of chaos ( Pss 66:6; 72:8; 80:12; 89:26; 93:3-4 ; Isa 50:2 ; Mic 7:12 ; Hab 3:8 ; Zech 9:10 ).


The Assyrians waged war every spring after the Tigris and Euphrates rivers dried up, allowing them to cross. As the Mighty Warrior par excellence, the Lord is able to part the rivers to attack Assyria.


The phrase “the world and all its inhabitants” is used to stress the universal dimensions of God’s revelation of his glory and his acts of judgment (e.g., Pss 33:8; 98:7 ; Isa 18:3; 26:9, 18 ; Lam 4:12 ).


The phrase “time of distress” ( בְּיוֹם צָרָה ) refers to situations in which God’s people are oppressed by enemy armies ( Isa 33:2 ; Jer 14:8; 15:11; 16:19 ; Obad 12 ; Pss 20:2; 37:39 ). Nahum may be alluding to recent Assyrian invasions of Judah, such as Sennacherib’s devastating invasion in 701 b.c. , in which the Lord protected the remnant within the fortress walls of Jerusalem ( 2 Kgs 18-19 ; ; Isa 36-37 ).


This simile compares the imminent destruction of Nineveh to the burning of a mass of entangled thorn-bushes ( Job 8:17 ). When thorn-bushes are entangled they burn quickly and completely ( Eccl 7:6 ; Isa 34:13 ). tc The MT reads סִירִים סְבֻכִים ( sirim sÿvukhim , “entangled thorn-bushes”), and is supported by the Dead Sea text from Murabba`at: סירים סבכים (see DJD 2:197). The noun סִירִים (“thorn bushes”) is from סִיר ( sir , “thorn, thorn bush,” BDB 696 s.v. II סִיר ; HALOT 752 s.v. * סִירָה ), e.g., Isa 34:13 ; Hos 2:8 ; Eccl 7:6 . The Qal passive participle סְבֻכִים ( sÿvukhim ) is from סָבַךְ ( savakh , “to interweave,” BDB 687 s.v. סָבַךְ ; HALOT 740 s.v. סבך ), e.g., Job 8:17 , which is related to Assyrian sabaku (“to entwine,” AHw 2:999.a) and Arabic sabaka (“to entwine”; Leslau, 51). The MT is supported by several LXX translators, e.g., Symmachus, Aquila, and Theodotion. It is also reflected in Vulgate’s spinarum perplexi (“thorn-bushes entangled”). On the other hand, the Syriac Peshitta reflects סָרִים סוֹרְרִים ( sarim sorÿrim , “your princes are rebels”) which points to orthographic confusion and a different vocalization. Similar textual confusion is apparent in Origen: θεμελίου αὐτοῦ ξερσωθήσεται ( qemeliou autou xerswqhsetai , “his foundation shall be laid bare”) seems to reflect יְסֹדָם יְכָבֵּס ( yÿsodam yÿkhabbes , “their foundation shall be washed away”) which was caused by orthographic confusion and transposition of consonants. The MT should be retained.


Verse 12 begins with a typical prophetic introduction (“This is what the Lord says”) in language similar to the typical ancient Near Eastern messenger formula (see C. Westermann, Basic Forms of Prophetic Speeches , 100-115). This formula is frequently used to introduce prophetic speeches (e.g., Jer 2:5 ; Ezek 2:4 ; Amos 1:3 ). The messenger formula indicates that the prophet’s message is not his own, but is a revelatory and prophetic oracle from the Lord . It confirms the authenticity of the message.


The expression they will be cut off is an example of a hypocatastasis (implied comparison); Nahum intentionally chose this term to compare the destruction of the Assyrians to the shearing of sheep. This word-play has great rhetorical impact because the Assyrians frequently used sheep imagery when boasting of the ease and brutality with which they defeated their enemies (see D. Marcus, “Animal Similes in Assyrian Royal Inscriptions,” Or 46 [1977]: 92-93). It is both appropriate (poetic justice) and ironic (reversal of situation) that the Assyrians themselves should suffer a fate which they boasted of inflicting upon others. They will be an easy, helpless prey for the Divine Warrior. Their punishment will fit their crimes. tn Heb “they will be sheared.” The term “cut off” ( גָּזָז , gazaz ) is ordinarily used to describe the literal actions of “shearing” sheep ( Gen 31:19; 38:12-13 ; Deut 15:19; 18:4 ; 1 Sam 25:2, 4, 7, 11 ; 2 Sam 13:23-24 ; Job 31:20 ; Isa 53:7 ) and “cutting” hair ( Jer 7:29 ; Mic 1:16 ; Job 1:20 ). It is used figuratively here to describe the destruction of the Assyrian army (BDB 159 s.v. גָּזַז ; HALOT 186 s.v. גזז ).


The phrase the shackles that are on you draws an implied comparison between the chains and stocks of prisoners or slaves with the burden of international vassaldom to a tyrannical suzerain who demands absolute obedience and requires annual tributary offerings (e.g., Ps 2:3 ; Isa 52:2 ; Jer 27:2; 30:8 ). “Shackles” were the agent of covenantal discipline (e.g., Deut 28:48 ). Isaiah stated that the Assyrian “yoke” was the Lord ’s instrument of discipline ( Isa 28:22 ). The phrase I will tear apart the shackles that are on you draws an implied comparison (hypocatastasis) between removing the iron chains from a prisoner/slave and freeing a vassal from the oppression of a tyrannical suzerain through military conquest ( Ps 2:3 ; Isa 52:2 ).


Beginning with 1:15 , the verse numbers through 2:13 in the English Bible differ from the verse numbers in the Hebrew text ( BHS ), with 1:15 ET = 2:1 HT, 2:1 ET = 2:2 HT, etc., through 2:13 ET = 2:14 HT. Beginning with 3:1 , the verse numbers in the English Bible and the Hebrew Bible are again the same.


The sacred vows to praise God were often made by Israelites as a pledge to proclaim the mercy of the Lord if he would be gracious to deliver (e.g., Gen 28:20; 31:13 ; Lev 7:16 ; Judg 11:30, 39 ; 1 Sam 1:11, 21 ; 2 Sam 15:7-8 ; Pss 22:25 [26]; 50:14; 56:12 [13]; 61:5 [6], 8 [9]; 65:1 [2]; 66:13; 116:14, 18 ; Eccl 5:4 [3]; Jonah 1:16; 2:9 [10]). The words “to praise God” are not in the Hebrew, but are added in the translation for clarification.


Cush is the Hebrew name for the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia (also known as Nubia) along the Nile valley south of Aswan in Egypt. Many modern English versions render this “Ethiopia,” but this area is not to be confused with modern Ethiopia (i.e., Abyssinia).


Ironically, Sennacherib had recently planted fig trees along all the major avenues in Nineveh to help beautify the city, and had encouraged the citizens of Nineveh to eat from these fruit trees. How appropriate that Nineveh’s defenses would now be compared to fig trees whose fruit would be eaten by its enemies.


This extended simile compares the siege of Nineveh with reapers shaking a tree to harvest the “first-ripe fruit.” Fruit that matured quickly and ripened early in the season dropped from the trees more easily than the later crop which developed more slowly ( Isa 28:4 ). To harvest the later crop the worker had to climb the tree (sixteen to twenty feet tall) and pick the figs by hand from each branch. On the other hand, the fruit from the early harvest could be gathered quickly and with a minimum of effort by simply shaking the trunk of the tree (G. Dalman, Arbeit und Sitte in Palestina , 1:378-80). The point of this simile is that Nineveh would fall easily and quickly.


This is appropriate imagery and highly ironic. After defeating their enemies, the Assyrian kings often encouraged their troops to consume the fruit of the conquered city’s fruit trees.


The expression the fire will consume you is an example of personification. Fire is often portrayed consuming an object like a person might consume food ( Lev 6:3; 10:2; 16:25 ; Num 16:35 ; Deut 4:24; 5:22 ; Judg 9:15 ; 1 Kgs 18:38 ; 2 Kgs 1:10, 12, 14 ; 2 Chr 7:1 ; Isa 5:24; 10:17; 30:27, 30; 33:14 ; Amos 1:4, 7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2, 5; 5:6 ).


The term shepherd was frequently used in the ancient Near East in reference to kings and other leaders (royal, political, military). Here, the expression your shepherds is an implied comparison (hypocatastasis) referring to the royal/military leadership of Assyria.


The fishing implements ( throw net and dragnet ) represent Babylonian military might. The prophet depicts the Babylonians as arrogantly worshiping their own power ( sacrifices…burns incense , see also v. 11 b).


Habakkuk compares himself to a watchman stationed on the city wall who keeps his eyes open for approaching messengers or danger.


Sheol is the proper name of the subterranean world which was regarded as the land of the dead. In ancient Canaanite thought Death was a powerful god whose appetite was never satisfied. In the OT Sheol/Death, though not deified, is personified as greedy and as having a voracious appetite. See Prov 30:15-16 ; Isa 5:14 ; also see L. I. J. Stadelmann, The Hebrew Conception of the World , 168.


The house mentioned in vv. 9-10 represents the Babylonian empire, which became great through imperialism. Here the materials of this “house” ( the stones in the walls , the wooden rafters ) are personified as witnesses who testify that the occupants have built the house through wealth stolen from others.


The Lord’s right hand represents his military power. He will force the Babylonians to experience the same humiliating defeat they inflicted on others.


Teman was a city or region in southern Edom.


The precise location of Mount Paran is unknown, but like Teman it was located to the southeast of Israel. Habakkuk saw God marching from the direction of Sinai.


The following context suggests these questions should be answered, “Yes.” The rivers and the sea, symbolizing here the hostile nations (v. 12 ), are objects of the Lord’s anger (vv. 10, 15 ).


The great deep , which is to be equated with the sea (vv. 8, 15 ), is a symbol of chaos and represents the Lord’s enemies.


Lifting the hands here suggests panic and is accompanied by a cry for mercy (see Ps 28:2 ; Lam 2:19 ). The forces of chaos cannot withstand the Lord’s power revealed in the storm.


The very dress of the royal court, foreign styles of clothing , revealed the degree to which Judah had assimilated foreign customs.


The point of the statement all who hop over the threshold is unclear. A ritual or superstition associated with the Philistine god Dagon may be in view (see 1 Sam 5:5 ).


The Fish Gate was located on Jerusalem’s north side (cf. 2 Chr 33:14 ; Neh 3:3; 12:39 ).


This description of the day of the Lord consists of an initial reference to anger , followed by four pairs of synonyms. The joining of synonyms in this way emphasizes the degree of the characteristic being described. The first two pairs focus on the distress and ruin that judgment will bring; the second two pairs picture this day of judgment as being very dark ( darkness ) and exceedingly overcast ( gloom ). The description concludes with the pairing of two familiar battle sounds, the blast on the ram’s horn ( trumpet blasts ) and the war cries of the warriors ( battle cries ).


Though there is no formal introduction, these words are apparently spoken by the Lord (note my sword ).


Applied to prophets, the word פֹּחֲזִים ( pokhazim , “proud”) probably refers to their audacity in passing off their own words as genuine prophecies from the Lord (see Jer 23:32 ).


The second person verbs and pronouns are feminine singular, indicating that personified Jerusalem is addressed here.


This phrase is used as an epithet for the city and the nation. “Daughter” may seem extraneous in English but consciously joins the various epithets and metaphors of Israel and Jerusalem as a woman, a device used to evoke sympathy from the reader.


The first day of the sixth month was Elul 1 according to the Jewish calendar; August 29, 520 b.c. according to the modern (Julian) calendar.


King Darius is the Persian king Darius Hystaspes who ruled from 522-486 b.c .


The epithet Lord who rules over all occurs frequently as a divine title throughout Haggai (see 1:5, 7, 9, 14; 2:4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 23 ). This name ( יְהוָה צְבָאוֹת , yÿhvah tsÿva ’ ot ), traditionally translated “ Lord of hosts” (so KJV, NAB, NASB; cf. NIV, NLT “Lord Almighty”; NCV, CEV “Lord All-Powerful”), emphasizes the majestic sovereignty of the Lord, an especially important concept in the postexilic world of great human empires and rulers. For a thorough study of the divine title, see T. N. D. Mettinger, In Search of God , 123-57.


Richly paneled houses . Paneling is otherwise known in the OT only in connection with the temple ( 1 Kgs 6:9 ) and the royal palace ( 2 Kgs 7:3, 7 ). It implies decoration and luxury (cf. NCV “fancy houses”; TEV “well-built houses”; NLT “luxurious houses”). The impropriety of the people living in such lavish accommodations while the temple lay unfinished is striking.


The temple was built primarily of stone, so the timber here refers to interior paneling (see v. 4 ) and perhaps to scaffolding (see Ezra 5:8; 6:4 ).


This linkage of human sin to natural disaster is reminiscent of the curse brought upon the earth by Adam’s disobedience ( Gen 3:17-19 ; see Rom 8:20-22 ).


The twenty-fourth day of the sixth month of King Darius’ second year was September 21, 520 b.c. , twenty-three days after the original command by Haggai to rebuild ( 1:1 ). The text does not state the reason for the delay, but it may have resulted from the pressing need to bring in the late summer harvest.


My spirit . It is theologically anachronistic to understand “spirit” here in the NT sense as a reference to the Holy Spirit, the third person of the Trinity; nevertheless during this postexilic period the conceptual groundwork was being laid for the doctrine of the Holy Spirit later revealed in the NT.


The twenty-fourth day of the ninth month of Darius’ second year was Kislev 24 or December 18, 520 b.c .


This is probably not an appeal to the Torah (i.e., the Pentateuch) as such but to a priestly ruling (known in postbiblical Judaism as a pÿsaq din ). There is, however, a Mosaic law that provides the basis for the priestly ruling ( Lev 6:27 ).


The point here is that the Jews cannot be made holy by unholy fellowship with their pagan neighbors; instead, they and their worship will become corrupted by such associations.


Before one stone was laid on another in the Lord ’s temple is best taken as referring to the laying of the present temple’s foundation, sixteen years earlier (536 b.c. ; see Ezra 3:8 ). Cf. NCV “before you started laying stones”; TEV “before you started to rebuild”; NLT “before you began to lay (started laying CEV) the foundation.”


The twenty-fourth day of the ninth month was Kislev 24 or December 18, 520. See v. 10 . Here the reference is to “today,” the day the oracle is being delivered.


The day work…was resumed . This does not refer to the initial founding of the Jerusalem temple in 536 b.c. but to the renewal of construction three months earlier (see 1:15 ). This is clear from the situation described in v. 19 which accords with the food scarcities of that time already detailed in Hag 1:10-11 .


Again, the twenty-fourth day of the month was Kislev 24 or December 18, 520 b.c . See v. 10 .


The expression on that day appears as a technical eschatological term in a number of other OT passages (cf., e.g., Isa 2:11, 17, 20; 3:7, 18 ; Amos 8:3, 9 ; Hos 2:18, 21 ).


My servant . The collocation of “servant” and “chosen” bears strong messianic overtones. See the so-called “Servant Songs” and other messianic texts in Isaiah ( Isa 41:8; 42:1; 44:4; 49:7 ).


The noun signet ring , used also to describe Jehoiachin ( Jer 22:24-30 ), refers to a ring seal worn by a king or other important person and used as his signature. Zerubbabel was a grandson of King Jehoiachin ( 1 Chr 3:17-19 ; Matt 1:12 ); God once pronounced that none of Jehoiachin’s immediate descendants would rule ( Jer 22:24-30 ), but here he reverses that judgment. Zerubbabel never ascended to such a lofty position of rulership; he is rather a prototype of the Messiah who would sit on David’s throne.


Darius is Darius Hystaspes, king of Persia from 522-486 b.c .


The eighth month of Darius’ second year was late October – late November, 520 b.c. , by the modern (Julian) calendar. This is two months later than the date of Haggai’s first message to the same community (cf. Hag 1:1 ).


Both Ezra ( 5:1; 6:14 ) and Nehemiah (12:16) speak of Zechariah as a son of Iddo only. A probable explanation is that Zechariah’s actual father Berechiah had died and the prophet was raised by his grandfather Iddo. The “Zechariah son of Barachiah” of whom Jesus spoke ( Matt 23:35 ; Luke 11:51 ) was probably the martyred prophet by that name who may have been a grandson of the priest Jehoiada ( 2 Chr 24:20-22 ).


The epithet Lord who rules over all occurs frequently as a divine title throughout Zechariah (53 times total). This name ( יְהוָה צְבָאוֹת , yÿhvah tsÿva ’ ot ), traditionally translated “ Lord of hosts” (so KJV, NAB, NASB; cf. NIV, NLT “Lord Almighty”; NCV, CEV “Lord All-Powerful”), emphasizes the majestic sovereignty of the Lord, an especially important concept in the postexilic world of great human empires and rulers. For a thorough study of the divine title, see T. N. D. Mettinger, In Search of God , 123-57.


The twenty-fourth day of the eleventh month…in Darius’ second year was February 15, 519 b.c .


The Hebrew שְׂרֻקִּים ( sÿruqqim ) means “red” (cf. NIV, NCV, NLT “brown”). English translations such as “speckled” (KJV) or “dappled” (TEV) are based on the reading of the LXX ( ψαροί ) that attempts to bring the color of this horse into conformity with those described in Zech 6:2-3 . However, since these are two different and unrelated visions, this is a methodological fallacy.


The stem used here (Hitpael) with the verb “walk” ( הָלַךְ , halakh ) suggests the exercise of dominion (cf. Gen 13:17 ; Job 1:7; 2:2-3 ; Ezek 28:14 ; Zech 6:7 ). The Lord is here about to claim sovereignty over the nations. Cf. NAB, NASB, NRSV, NLT “to patrol”; TEV “to go and inspect.”


The angel of the Lord is a special being who throughout the OT represents God himself and on occasion almost approaches divine hypostatization or incarnation (cf. Gen 18:2, 13, 17, 22 ; Exod 23:20-21 ; Josh 5:13-15 ; Judg 6:11-24; 13:2-20 ).


Note that here the angel of the Lord is clearly distinct from the Lord who rules over all himself.


The seventy years refers to the predicted period of Babylonian exile, a period with flexible beginning and ending points depending on the particular circumstances in view (cf. Jer 25:1; 28:1; 29:10 ; Dan 9:2 ). Here the end of the seventy years appears to be marked by the completion of the temple in 516 b.c. , exactly seventy years after its destruction in 586.


This marks the beginning of ch. in the Hebrew text. Beginning with 1:18 , the verse numbers through 2:13 in the English Bible differ from the verse numbers in the Hebrew text ( BHS ), with 1:18 ET = 2:1 HT, 1:19 ET = 2:2 HT, 1:20 ET = 2:3 HT, 1:21 ET = 2:4 HT, 2:1 ET = 2:5 HT, etc., through 2:13 ET = 2:17 HT. From 3:1 the verse numbers in the English Bible and the Hebrew Bible are again the same.


An animal’s horn is a common OT metaphor for military power ( Pss 18:2; 75:10 ; Jer 48:25 ; Mic 4:13 ). The fact that there are four horns here (as well as four blacksmiths , v. 20 ) shows a correspondence to the four horses of v. 8 which go to four parts of the world, i.e., the whole world.


That is, to Zechariah.


These are the scattered Jews of eschatological times (as the expression four winds of heaven makes clear) and not those of Zechariah’s time who have, for the most part, already returned by 520 b.c . This theme continues and is reinforced in vv. 10-13 .


This individualizing of Zion as a daughter draws attention to the corporate nature of the covenant community and also to the tenderness with which the Lord regards his chosen people.


The sense here is that God in heaven is about to undertake an occupation of his earthly realm (v. 12 ) by restoring his people to the promised land.


Joshua the high priest mentioned here is the son of the priest Jehozadak, mentioned also in Hag 1:1 (cf. Ezra 2:2; 3:2, 8; 4:3; 5:2; 10:18 ; Neh 7:7; 12:1, 7, 10, 26 ). He also appears to have been the grandfather of the high priest contemporary with Nehemiah ca. 445 b.c. ( Neh 12:10 ).


The juxtaposition of the messenger of the Lord in v. 1 and the Lord in v. 2 shows that here, at least, they are one and the same. See Zech 1:11, 12 where they are distinguished from each other.


The Hebrew word צוֹאִים ( tso ’ im ) means “excrement.” This disgusting figure of speech suggests Joshua’s absolute disqualification for priestly service in the flesh, but v. 2 speaks of his having been rescued from that deplorable state by God’s grace. He is like a burning stick pulled out of the fire before it is consumed. This is a picture of cleansing, saving grace.


The statement you will be able to preside over my temple ( Heb “house,” a reference to the Jerusalem temple) is a hint of the increasingly important role the high priest played in the postexilic Jewish community, especially in the absence of a monarchy. It also suggests the messianic character of the eschatological priesthood in which the priest would have royal prerogatives.


The collocation of servant and branch gives double significance to the messianic meaning of the passage (cf. Isa 41:8, 9; 42:1, 19; 43:10; 44:1, 2, 21 ; Ps 132:17 ; Jer 23:5; 33:15 ).


The stone is also a metaphor for the Messiah, a foundation stone that, at first rejected ( Ps 118:22-23 ; Isa 8:13-15 ), will become the chief cornerstone of the church ( Eph 2:19-22 ).


Inscriptions were common on ancient Near Eastern cornerstones. This inscription speaks of the redemption achieved by the divine resident of the temple, the Messiah, who will in the day of the Lord bring salvation to all Israel (cf. Isa 66:7-9 ).


The vision apparently describes two olive trees providing olive oil by pipes to a large basin atop the menorah. From this basin two pipes extend to each of the seven lamps of the menorah, for a total of fourteen pipes in all. See vv. 11-12 .


Here these must refer to the lamps, since the identification of the olive trees is left to vv. 11-14 .


It is premature to understand the Spirit here as the Holy Spirit (the third Person of the Trinity), though the OT prepares the way for that NT revelation (cf. Gen 1:2 ; Exod 23:3; 31:3 ; Num 11:17-29 ; Judg 3:10; 6:34 ; 2 Kgs 2:9, 15, 16 ; Ezek 2:2; 3:12; 11:1, 5 ).


In context, the great mountain here must be viewed as a metaphor for the enormous task of rebuilding the temple and establishing the messianic kingdom (cf. TEV “Obstacles as great as mountains”).


Grace is a fitting response to the idea that it was “not by strength and not by power” but by God’s gracious Spirit that the work could be done (cf. v. 6 ).


Stealing and swearing falsely (mentioned later in this verse) are sins against mankind and God respectively and are thus violations of the two major parts of the Ten Commandments. These two stipulations (commandments 8 and 3) represent the whole law.


Here two women appear as the agents of the Lord because the whole scene is feminine in nature. The Hebrew word for “wickedness” in v. 8 ( רִשְׁעָה ) is grammatically feminine, so feminine imagery is appropriate throughout.


The land of Babylonia ( Heb “the land of Shinar”) is another name for Sumer and Akkad, where Babylon was located ( Gen 10:10 ). Babylon throughout the Bible symbolizes the focus of anti-God sentiment and activity ( Gen 11:4; 14:1 ; –14; 47:1-3 ; –51; Rev 14:8; 17:1, 5, 18; 18:21 ).


The immediate referent of peace about the northland is to the peace brought by Persia’s conquest of Babylonia, a peace that allowed the restoration of the Jewish people (cf. 2 Chr 36:22-23 ; Isa 44:28; 45:1-2 ). However, there is also an eschatological dimension, referring to a time when there will be perfect and universal peace.


Except for Joshua (v. 11 ) none of these individuals is otherwise mentioned and therefore they cannot be further identified.


The priest here in the immediate context is Joshua but the fuller and more distant allusion is to the Messiah, a ruling priest. The notion of the ruler as a priest-king was already apparent in David and his successors ( Pss 2:2, 6-8; 110:2, 4 ), and it finds mature expression in David’s greater Son, Jesus Christ, who will combine both offices in his kingship ( Heb 5:1-10; 7:1-25 ).


Those who are far away is probably a reference to later groups of returning exiles under Ezra, Nehemiah, and others.


The fourth day of Kislev, the ninth month would be December 7, 518 b.c. , 22 months after the previous eight visions.


This lamentation marked the occasion of the destruction of Solomon’s temple on August 14, 586 b.c. , almost exactly 70 years earlier (cf. 2 Kgs 25:8 ).


The Shephelah is the geographical region between the Mediterranean coastal plain and the Judean hill country. The Hebrew term can be translated “lowlands” (cf. ASV), “foothills” (NAB, NASB, NLT), or “steppes.”


Lord who rules over all . There is a remarkable concentration of this name of God in this section of Zechariah. Of 53 occurrences of יְהוָה צְבָאוֹת ( yÿhvah tsÿva ’ ot ) in the Hebrew text in the book, 18 are in this chapter. The reason is the sheer human impossibility of accomplishing what lies ahead – it must be done by the Lord who rules over all .


The references to longevity and to children living and playing in peace are eschatological in tone. Elsewhere the millennial kingdom is characterized in a similar manner (cf. Isa 65:20 ; Jer 31:12-13 ).


The affirmation They will be my people, and I will be their God speaks of covenant renewal, a restoration of the unbroken fellowship the Lord desired to have with his people but which their disloyalty had shattered. In the eschaton God and Israel will be in covenant union once again (cf. Jer 31:33 ).


These prophets who were there at the founding of the house of the Lord who rules over all included at least Haggai and Zechariah, and perhaps others. The founding referred to here is not the initial laying of the temple’s foundations in 536 b.c. ( Ezra 3:8 ) but the resumption of work two years before the time of the present narrative (i.e., in 520 b.c. ), as vv. 10-12 make clear.


For a similar reference to true and righteous judgment see Mic 6:8 .


The fasts of the fifth and seventh months, mentioned previously ( 7:5 ), are listed here along with the observances of the fourth and tenth months. The latter commemorated the siege of Jerusalem by the Babylonians on January 15, 588 b.c. ( 2 Kgs 25:1 ), and the former the breach of the city walls on or about July 18, 586 b.c. ( Jer 39:2-5 ).


This scene of universal and overwhelming attraction of the nations to Israel’s God finds initial fulfillment in the establishment of the church ( Acts 2:5-11 ) but ultimate completion in the messianic age ( Isa 45:14, 24; 60:14 ; Zech 14:16-21 ).


The land of Hadrach was a northern region stretching from Aleppo in the north to Damascus in the south (cf. NLT “Aram”).


The NT understands this verse to be a prophecy of the triumphal entry of Jesus into Jerusalem on Palm Sunday, and properly so (cf. Matt 21:5 ; John 12:15 ), but reference to the universal rule of the king in v. 10 reveals that this is a “split prophecy,” that is, it has a two-stage fulfillment. Verse 9 was fulfilled in Jesus’ earthly ministry but v. 10 awaits a millennial consummation (cf. Rev 19:11-16 ).


The whole setting is eschatological as the intensely figurative language shows. The message is that the Lord will assume his triumphant reign over all the earth and will use his own redeemed and renewed people Israel to accomplish that work. The imagery of v. 15 is the eating and drinking of the flesh and blood of God’s enemies, that is, Israel’s complete mastery of them. Like those who drink too much wine, the Lord ’s warriors will be satiated with the blood of their foes and will exult as though drunk.


This expostulation best fits the whole preceding description of God’s eschatological work on behalf of his people. His goodness is especially evident in his nurturing of the young men and women of his kingdom.


Shepherd is a common OT metaphor for the king (see esp. Jer 2:8; 3:15; 10:21; 23:1-2; 50:6 ; ).


On the NT use of the image of the cornerstone , see Luke 20:17 ; Eph 2:20 ; 1 Pet 2:6 .


The metaphor of the wall peg (Heb. יָתֵד , yated ), together with the others in this list, describes the remarkable change that will take place at the inauguration of God’s eschatological kingdom. Israel, formerly sheep-like, will be turned into a mighty warhorse. The peg refers to a wall hook (although frequently translated “tent peg,” but cf. ASV “nail”; TWOT 1:419) from which tools and weapons were suspended, but figuratively also to the promise of God upon which all of Israel’s hopes were hung (cf. Isa 22:15-25 ; Ezra 9:8 ).


I will bring them back from Egypt…from Assyria . The gathering of God’s people to their land in eschatological times will be like a reenactment of the exodus, but this time they will come from all over the world (cf. Isa 40:3-5; 43:1-7, 14-21; 48:20-22; 51:9-11 ).


In this poetic section, plants and animals provide the imagery for rulers, especially evil ones (cf. respectively Isa 10:33-34 ; Ezek 31:8 ; Amos 2:9 ; Nah 2:12 ).


The expression those who buy them appears to be a reference to the foreign nations to whom Israel’s own kings “sold” their subjects. Far from being good shepherds, then, they were evil and profiteering. The whole section (vv. 4-14 ) refers to the past when the Lord , the Good Shepherd, had in vain tried to lead his people to salvation and life.


The first person pronoun refers to Zechariah himself who, however, is a “stand-in” for the Lord as the actions of vv. 8-14 make clear. The prophet, like others before him, probably performed actions dramatizing the account of God’s past dealings with Israel and Judah (cf. Hos 1-3 ; Isa 20:2-4 ; Jer 19:1-15; 27:2-11 ; Ezek 4:1-3 ).


The two staffs represent the two kingdoms, Israel and Judah. For other examples of staffs representing tribes or nations see Num 17:1-11 ; Ezek 37:15-23 .


Zechariah is only dramatizing what God had done historically (see the note on the word “cedars” in 11:1 ). The “one month” probably means just any short period of time in which three kings ruled in succession. Likely candidates are Elah, Zimri, Tibni ( 1 Kgs 16:8-20 ); Zechariah, Shallum, Menahem ( 2 Kgs 15:8-16 ); or Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin, Zedekiah ( 2 Kgs 24:1 – 25:7 ).


The speaker (Zechariah) represents the Lord, who here is asking what his service as faithful shepherd has been worth in the opinion of his people Israel.


If taken at face value, thirty pieces (shekels) of silver was worth about two and a half years’ wages for a common laborer. The Code of Hammurabi prescribes a monthly wage for a laborer of one shekel. If this were the case in Israel, 30 shekels would be the wages for 2 1/2 years (R. de Vaux, Ancient Israel , pp. 76, 204-5). For other examples of “thirty shekels” as a conventional payment, see K. Luke, “The Thirty Pieces of Silver ( Zech. 11:12 f.), Ind TS 19 (1982): 26-30. Luke, on the basis of Sumerian analogues, suggests that “thirty” came to be a term meaning anything of little or no value (p. 30). In this he follows Erica Reiner, “Thirty Pieces of Silver,” in Essays in Memory of E . A . Speiser , AOS 53, ed. William W. Hallo (New Haven, Conn.: American Oriental Society, 1968), 186-90. Though the 30 shekels elsewhere in the OT may well be taken literally, the context of Zech. 11:12 may indeed support Reiner and Luke in seeing it as a pittance here, not worth considering (cf. Exod 21:32 ; Lev 27:4 ; Matt 26:15 ).


The grammar (e.g., the incipient participle מֵקִים , maqim , “about to raise up,” v. 16 ) and overall sense of vv. 15-17 give the incident a future orientation. Zechariah once more is role-playing but this time he is a “foolish” shepherd, i.e., one who does not know God and who is opposed to him (cf. Prov 1:7; 15:5; 20:3; 27:22 ). The individual who best represents this eschatological enemy of God and his people is the Antichrist (cf. Matt 24:5, 24 ; 2 Thess 2:3-4 ; 1 John 2:18, 22; 4:3 ; 2 John 7 ).


The image of a cup that brings dizziness is that of drunkenness. The Lord will force the nations to drink of his judgment and in doing so they will become so intoxicated by his wrath that they will stumble and become irrational.


In Israel’s and Judah’s past they had been uprooted by various conquerors such as the Assyrians and the Babylonians. In the eschaton, however, they will be so “heavy” with God’s glory and so rooted in his promises that no nation will be able to move them.


On that day (referring to the day of the Lord) the Davidic monarchy will be restored and the Lord ’s people will recognize once more the legitimacy and divine sanction of David’s dynasty. But there will also be a democratizing that will not give Jerusalem and its rulers undue priority over the people of the countryside (v. 7 ).


The statement the dynasty of David will be like God is hyperbole to show the remarkable enhancements that will accompany the inauguration of the millennial age.


By the time of Zechariah the line of descent from David had already been transferred from the Solomon branch to the Nathan branch ( the clan of the family of Nathan ). Nathan was a son of David ( 2 Sam 5:14 ) through whom Jesus eventually came ( Luke 3:23-31 ). Matthew traces Jesus’ ancestry back through Solomon ( Matt 1:6-16 ) but apparently this is to tie Joseph into the Davidic (and thus messianic) line. The “official” descent of Jesus may be viewed as passing through Solomon whereas the “physical” descent came through Nathan.


The Shimeites were Levites ( Exod 6:16-17 ; Num 3:17-18 ) who presumably were prominent in the postexilic era. Just as David and Nathan represented the political leadership of the community, so Levi and Shimei represented the religious leadership. All will lament the piercing of the Messiah.


Death (in this case being run…through with a sword ) was the penalty required in the OT for prophesying falsely ( Deut 13:6-11; 18:20-22 ).


Despite the NT use of this text to speak of the scattering of the disciples following Jesus’ crucifixion ( Matt 26:31 ; Mark 14:27 ), the immediate context of Zechariah suggests that unfaithful shepherds (kings) will be punished by the Lord precisely so their flocks (disobedient Israel) can be scattered (cf. Zech 11:6, 8, 9, 16 ). It is likely that Jesus drew on this passage merely to make the point that whenever shepherds are incapacitated, sheep will scatter. Thus he was not identifying himself with the shepherd in this text (the shepherd in the Zechariah text is a character who is portrayed negatively).


The fractions mentioned here call to mind the affliction of God’s people described by Ezekiel, though Ezekiel referred to his own times whereas Zechariah is looking forward to a future eschatological age. Ezekiel spoke of cutting his hair at God’s command ( Ezek 5:1-4 ) and then of burning a third of it, striking a third with a sword, and scattering the rest. From this last third a few hairs would survive to become the nucleus of a new Israel. It is this “third” Zechariah speaks of (v. 9 ), the remnant who will be purified and reclaimed as God’s covenant people.


The expression I will say ‘It is my people,’ and they will say ‘the Lord is my God’ is reminiscent of the restoration of Israel predicted by Hosea, who said that those who had been rejected as God’s people would be reclaimed and once more become his sons and daughters ( Hos 2:23 ).


The eschatological day of the Lord described here (and through v. 8 ) is considered by many interpreters to refer to the period known as the great tribulation, a seven year time of great suffering by God’s (Jewish) people culminating in the establishing of the millennial reign of the Lord (vv. 9-21 ). For other OT and NT references to this aspect of the day of the Lord see Amos 9:8-15 ; Joel 1:15 –2:11; Isa 1:24-31; 2:2-4; 4:2-6; 26:16 –27:6; 33:13-24; 59:1 –60:22; 65:13-25 ; Jer 30:7-11; 32:36-44 ; Ezek 20:33-44 ; Dan 11:40; 12:1 ; Matt 24:21, 29; 25:31-46 ; Rev 19:11-16 .


The statement the Lord will go to battle introduces the conflict known elsewhere as the “battle of Armageddon,” a battle in which the Lord delivers his people and establishes his millennial reign (cf. Joel 3:12, 15-16 ; –39; Rev 16:12-21; 19:19-21 ).


This seismic activity provides a means of escape from Jerusalem so that the Messiah (the Lord ), whose feet will stand on the Mount of Olives, may destroy the wicked nations in the Kidron Valley (the v. of Jehoshaphat, or of “judgment of the Lord ”) without harming the inhabitants of the city.


Azal is a place otherwise unknown.


The earthquake in the days of King Uzziah , also mentioned in Amos 1:1 , is apparently the one attested to at Hazor in 760 b.c .


In the evening there will be light . The normal pattern is that light breaks through in the morning ( Gen 1:3 ) but in the day of the Lord in judgment it would do so in the evening. In a sense the universe will be “de-created” in order to be “recreated.”


Living waters will flow out from Jerusalem . Ezekiel sees this same phenomenon in conjunction with the inauguration of the messianic age (; cf. Rev 22:1-5 ; also John 7:38 ).


The eastern sea is a reference to the Dead Sea (cf. NCV, TEV, CEV, NLT).


The western sea is a reference to the Mediterranean Sea (cf. NCV, TEV, CEV, NLT).


The expression the Lord will be seen as one with a single name is an unmistakable reference to the so-called Shema , the crystallized statement of faith in the Lord as the covenant God of Israel (cf. Deut 6:4-5 ). Zechariah, however, universalizes the extent of the Lord ’s dominion – he will be “king over all the earth.”


The expression from Geba to Rimmon is a way of indicating the extent of all Judah from north ( 2 Kgs 23:8 ) to south ( Job 15:32; 19:7 ). Since Geba (Heb. גֶּבַע ) means “hill” and Rimmon resembles the word for height (Heb. רָמָה , ramah ), this could be a play on words suggesting that all the high country will be made low, like the great Arabah valley.


From the Benjamin Gate…on to the Corner Gate marks the northern wall of the city of Jerusalem from east to west.


From the Tower of Hananel to the royal winepresses indicates the extent of Jerusalem from north to south.


Having imposed his sovereignty over the earth following the Battle of Armageddon, the Lord will receive homage and tribute from all who survive from all the nations . The Feast of Tabernacles was especially associated with covenant institution and renewal so it will be appropriate for all people to acknowledge that they are vassals to the Lord at that time (cf. Deut 31:9-13 ; Neh 8:12-18; 9:1-38 ).


The reference to any…who refuse to go up to Jerusalem makes clear the fact that the nations are by no means “converted” to the Lord but are under his compulsory domination.


In the glory of the messianic age there will be no differences between the sacred ( the bowls before the altar ) and the profane ( the cooking pots in the Lord ’s temple ) – all will be dedicated to his use.


Edom , a “brother” nation to Israel, became almost paradigmatic of hostility toward Israel and God (see Num 20:14-21 ; Deut 2:8 ; Jer 49:7-22 ; Ezek 25:12-14 ; Amos 1:11-12 ; Obad 10-12 ).


The epithet Lord who rules over all occurs frequently as a divine title throughout Malachi (24 times total). This name ( יְהוָה צְבָאוֹת , yÿhvah tsÿva ’ ot ), traditionally translated “ Lord of hosts” (so KJV, NAB, NASB; cf. NIV NLT “Lord Almighty”; NCV, CEV “Lord All-Powerful”), emphasizes the majestic sovereignty of the Lord, an especially important concept in the postexilic world of great human empires and rulers. For a thorough study of the divine title, see T. N. D. Mettinger, In Search of God , 123-57.


The word table , here a synonym for “altar,” has overtones of covenant imagery in which a feast shared by the covenant partners was an important element (see Exod 24:11 ). It also draws attention to the analogy of sitting down at a common meal with the governor (v. 8 ).


Offerings of animals that were lame or sick were strictly forbidden by the Mosaic law (see Deut 15:21 ).


The rhetorical language suggests that as long as the priesthood and people remain disobedient, the temple doors may as well be closed because God is not “at home” to receive them or their worship there.


My name will be great among the nations . In what is clearly a strongly ironic shift of thought, the Lord contrasts the unbelief and virtual paganism of the postexilic community with the conversion and obedience of the nations that will one day worship the God of Israel.


The epithet great king was used to describe the Hittite rulers on their covenant documents and so, in the covenant ideology of Malachi, is an apt description of the Lord .


See Zech 3:3-4 for similar coarse imagery which reflects cultic disqualification.


My covenant refers to the priestly covenant through Aaron and his grandson Phinehas (see Exod 6:16-20 ; Num 25:10-13 ; Jer 33:21-22 ). The point here is to contrast the priestly ideal with the disgraceful manner in which it was being carried out in postexilic times.


The rhetorical question Do we not all have one father? by no means teaches the “universal fatherhood of God,” that is, that all people equally are children of God. The reference to the covenant in v. 10 as well as to Israel and Judah (v. 11 ) makes it clear that the referent of “we” is God’s elect people.


You cover the altar of the Lord with tears . These tears are the false tears of hypocrisy, not genuine tears of repentance. The people weep because the Lord will not hear them, not because of their sin.


Though there is no explicit reference to marriage vows in the OT (but see Job 7:13 ; Prov 2:17 ; Ezek 16:8 ), the term law ( Heb “covenant”) here asserts that such vows or agreements must have existed. References to divorce documents (e.g., Deut 24:1-3 ; Jer 3:8 ) also presuppose the existence of marriage documents.


The wife he took in his youth probably refers to the first wife one married (cf. NCV “the wife you married when you were young”).


This messenger of the covenant may be equated with my messenger (that is, Elijah) mentioned earlier in the verse, or with the Lord himself. In either case the messenger functions as an enforcer of the covenant. Note the following verses, which depict purifying judgment on a people that has violated the Lord’s covenant.


The refiner’s fire was used to purify metal and refine it by melting it and allowing the dross, which floated to the top, to be scooped off.


The tithes and contributions mentioned here are probably those used to sustain the Levites (see Num 18:8, 11, 19, 21-24 ).


The people’s public display of self-effacing piety has gone unrewarded by the Lord . The reason, of course, is that it was blatantly hypocritical.


The scroll mentioned here is a “memory book” ( סֵפֶר זִכָּרוֹן , sefer zikkaron ) in which the Lord keeps an ongoing record of the names of all the redeemed (see Exod 32:32 ; Isa 4:3 ; Dan 12:1 ; Rev 20:12-15 ).


The Hebrew word סְגֻלָּה ( sÿgullah , “special property”) is a technical term referring to all the recipients of God’s redemptive grace, especially Israel ( Exod 19:5 ; Deut 7:6; 14:2; 26:18 ). The Lord says here that he will not forget even one individual in the day of judgment and reward.


Beginning with 4:1 , the verse numbers through 4:6 in the English Bible differ from the verse numbers in the Hebrew text ( BHS ), with 4:1 ET = 3:19 HT, 4:2 ET = 3:20 HT, etc., through 4:6 ET = 3:24 HT. Thus the book of Malachi in the Hebrew Bible has only three chapters, with 24 verses in ch. .


This day is the well-known “day of the Lord ” so pervasive in OT eschatological texts (see Joel 2:30-31 ; Amos 5:18 ; Obad 15 ). For the believer it is a day of grace and salvation; for the sinner, a day of judgment and destruction.


The point of the metaphor of healing wings is unclear. The sun seems to be compared to a bird. Perhaps the sun’s “wings” are its warm rays. “Healing” may refer to a reversal of the injury done by evildoers (see Mal 3:5 ).


Horeb is another name for Mount Sinai (cf. Exod 3:1 ).


I will send you Elijah the prophet . In light of the ascension of Elijah to heaven without dying ( 2 Kgs 2:11 ), Judaism has always awaited his return as an aspect of the messianic age (see, e.g., John 1:19-28 ). Jesus identified John the Baptist as Elijah, because he came in the “spirit and power” of his prototype Elijah ( Matt 11:14; 17:1-13 ; Mark 9:2-13 ; Luke 9:28-36 ).


By the wife of Uriah , i.e., Bathsheba (cf. 2 Sam 11:3 ).


Before the mention of Jeconiah , several medieval mss add Jehoiakim, in conformity with the genealogy in 1 Chr 3:15-16 . But this alters the count of fourteen generations (v. 17 ). It is evident that the author is selective in his genealogy for a theological purpose.


The Greek text and the KJV read Salathiel. Most modern English translations use the OT form of the name (cf. Ezra 3:2 ).


] 33 Ï co), and therefore should be regarded as authentic. For a detailed discussion of this textual problem, see TCGNT 2-6. The pronoun whom is feminine gender in the Greek text, referring to Mary.


The Greek form of the name Ihsous , which was translated into Latin as Jesus , is the same as the Hebrew Yeshua (Joshua), which means “Yahweh saves” (Yahweh is typically rendered as “Lord” in the OT). It was a fairly common name among Jews in 1st century Palestine, as references to a number of people by this name in the LXX and Josephus indicate.


A quotation from Isa 7:14 .


An allusion to Isa 8:8, 10 (LXX).


King Herod was Herod the Great, who ruled Palestine from 37 b.c. until he died in 4 b.c. He was known for his extensive building projects (including the temple in Jerusalem) and for his cruelty.


The Greek term magi here describes a class of wise men and priests who were astrologers (L&N 32.40).


See the note on King Herod in 2:1 .


A quotation from Mic 5:2 .


Frankincense refers to the aromatic resin of certain trees, used as a sweet-smelling incense (L&N 6.212).


Myrrh consisted of the aromatic resin of certain shrubs (L&N 6.208). It was used in preparing a corpse for burial.


See the note on King Herod in 2:1 . Herod the Great was particularly ruthless regarding the succession to his throne.


A quotation from Hos 11:1 .


See the note on King Herod in 2:1 . Note the fulfillment of the prophecy given by the angel in 2:13 .


A quotation from Jer 31:15 .


See the note on King Herod in 2:1 . When Herod the Great died in 4 b.c. , his kingdom was divided up among his three sons: Archelaus, who ruled over Judea (where Bethlehem was located, v. 22 ); Philip, who became tetrarch of Iturea and Trachonitis (cf. Luke 3:1 ); and Antipas, who became tetrarch of Galilee.


Archelaus took after his father Herod the Great in terms of cruelty and ruthlessness, so Joseph was afraid to go there. After further direction in a dream , he went instead to Galilee.


Nazareth was a very small village in the region of Galilee (Galilee lay north of Samaria and Judea). The town was located about 15 mi (25 km) west of the southern edge of the Sea of Galilee. According to Luke 1:26 , Mary was living in Nazareth when the birth of Jesus was announced to her. map For location see Map1-D3 ; Map2-C2 ; Map3-D5 ; Map4-C1 ; Map5-G3 .


This call to “make paths straight” in this context is probably an allusion to preparation through repentance.


A quotation from Isa 40:3 .


John’s lifestyle was in stark contrast to many of the religious leaders of Jerusalem who lived in relative ease and luxury. While his clothing and diet were indicative of someone who lived in the desert, they also depicted him in his role as God’s prophet (cf. Zech 13:4 ); his appearance is similar to the Prophet Elijah ( 2 Kgs 1:8 ). Locusts and wild honey were a common diet in desert regions, and locusts (dried insects) are listed in Lev 11:22 among the “clean” foods.


Pharisees were members of one of the most important and influential religious and political parties of Judaism in the time of Jesus. There were more Pharisees than Sadducees (according to Josephus, Ant. 17.2.4 [17.42] there were more than 6,000 Pharisees at about this time). Pharisees differed with Sadducees on certain doctrines and patterns of behavior. The Pharisees were strict and zealous adherents to the laws of the OT and to numerous additional traditions such as angels and bodily resurrection.


The Sadducees controlled the official political structures of Judaism at this time, being the majority members of the Sanhedrin. They were known as extremely strict on law and order issues (Josephus, J. W. 2.8.2 [2.119], 2.8.14 [2.164-166]; Ant. 13.5.9 [13.171-173], 13.10.6 [13.293-298], 18.1.2 [18.11], 18.1.4 [18.16-17], 20.9.1 [20.199]; Life 2 [10-11]). See also Matt 16:1-12; 22:23-34 ; Mark 12:18-27 ; Luke 20:27-38 ; Acts 5:17; 23:6-8 .


Fruit worthy of repentance refers to the deeds that indicate a change of attitude (heart) on the part of John’s hearers.


Laid at the root. That is, placed and aimed, ready to begin cutting.


With the Holy Spirit and fire . There are differing interpretations for this phrase regarding the number of baptisms and their nature. (1) Some see one baptism here, and this can be divided further into two options. (a) The baptism of the Holy Spirit and fire could refer to the cleansing, purifying work of the Spirit in the individual believer through salvation and sanctification, or (b) it could refer to two different results of Christ’s ministry: Some accept Christ and are baptized with the Holy Spirit, but some reject him and receive judgment. (2) Other interpreters see two baptisms here: The baptism of the Holy Spirit refers to the salvation Jesus brings at his first advent, in which believers receive the Holy Spirit, and the baptism of fire refers to the judgment Jesus will bring upon the world at his second coming. One must take into account both the image of fire and whether individual or corporate baptism is in view. A decision is not easy on either issue. The image of fire is used to refer to both eternal judgment (e.g., Matt 25:41 ) and the power of the Lord’s presence to purge and cleanse his people (e.g., Isa 4:4-5 ). The pouring out of the Spirit at Pentecost, a fulfillment of this prophecy no matter which interpretation is taken, had both individual and corporate dimensions. It is possible that since Holy Spirit and fire are governed by a single preposition in Greek, the one-baptism view may be more likely, but this is not certain. Simply put, there is no consensus view in scholarship at this time on the best interpretation of this passage.


A winnowing fork was a pitchfork-like tool used to toss threshed grain in the air so that the wind blew away the chaff, leaving the grain to fall to the ground. The note of purging is highlighted by the use of imagery involving sifting though threshed grain for the useful kernels.


The image of fire that cannot be extinguished is from the OT: Job 20:26 ; Isa 34:8-10; 66:24 .


The phrase like a dove is a descriptive comparison. The Spirit is not a dove, but descended like one in some sort of bodily representation.


A quotation from Deut 8:3 .


The order of the second and third temptations differs in Luke’s account ( 4:5-12 ) from the order given in Matthew.


The highest point of the temple probably refers to the point on the temple’s southeast corner where it looms directly over a cliff some 450 ft (135 m) high. However, some have suggested the reference could be to the temple’s high gate.


A quotation from Ps 91:11 . This was not so much an incorrect citation as a use in a wrong context (a misapplication of the passage).


A quotation from Ps 91:12 .


A quotation from Deut 6:16 .


A quotation from Deut 6:13 . The word “only” is an interpretive expansion not found in either the Hebrew or Greek (LXX) text of the OT.


A quotation from Isa 9:1 .


The expression followed him pictures discipleship, which means that to learn from Jesus is to follow him as the guiding priority of one’s life.


Synagogues were places for Jewish prayer and worship, with recognized leadership (cf. Luke 8:41 ). Though the origin of the synagogue is not entirely clear, it seems to have arisen in the postexilic community during the intertestamental period. A town could establish a synagogue if there were at least ten men. In normative Judaism of the NT period, the OT scripture was read and discussed in the synagogue by the men who were present (see the Mishnah, m. Megillah 3-4; m. Berakhot 2).


The term Blessed introduces the first of several beatitudes promising blessing to those whom God cares for. They serve as an invitation to come into the grace God offers.


The poor in spirit is a reference to the “pious poor” for whom God especially cares. See Ps 14:6; 22:24; 25:16; 34:6; 40:17; 69:29 .


The present tense ( belongs ) here is significant. Jesus makes the kingdom and its blessings currently available. This phrase is unlike the others in the list with the possessive pronoun being emphasized.


The promise they will be comforted is the first of several “reversals” noted in these promises. The beatitudes and the reversals that accompany them serve in the sermon as an invitation to enter into God’s care, because one can know God cares for those who turn to him.


Those who hunger are people like the poor Jesus has already mentioned. The term has OT roots both in conjunction with the poor ( Isa 32:6-7; 58:6-7, 9-10 ; Ezek 18:7, 16 ) or by itself ( Ps 37:16-19; 107:9 ).


Salt was used as seasoning or fertilizer (BDAG 41 s.v. ἅλας a), or as a preservative. If salt ceased to be useful, it was thrown away. With this illustration Jesus warned about a disciple who ceased to follow him.


The difficulty of this saying is understanding how salt could lose its flavor since its chemical properties cannot change. It is thus often assumed that Jesus was referring to chemically impure salt, perhaps a natural salt which, when exposed to the elements, had all the genuine salt leached out, leaving only the sediment or impurities behind. Others have suggested that the background of the saying is the use of salt blocks by Arab bakers to line the floor of their ovens; under the intense heat these blocks would eventually crystallize and undergo a change in chemical composition, finally being thrown out as unserviceable. A saying in the Talmud ( b. Bekhorot 8b) attributed to R. Joshua ben Chananja (ca. a.d. 90), when asked the question “When salt loses its flavor, how can it be made salty again?” is said to have replied, “By salting it with the afterbirth of a mule.” He was then asked, “Then does the mule (being sterile) bear young?” to which he replied: “Can salt lose its flavor?” The point appears to be that both are impossible. The saying, while admittedly late, suggests that culturally the loss of flavor by salt was regarded as an impossibility. Genuine salt can never lose its flavor. In this case the saying by Jesus here may be similar to Matt 19:24 , where it is likewise impossible for the camel to go through the eye of a sewing needle.


See the note on Pharisees in 3:7 .


A quotation from Exod 20:13 ; Deut 5:17 .


A quotation from Exod 20:14 ; Deut 5:17 .


On this word here and in the following verse, see the note on the word hell in 5:22 .


A quotation from Deut 24:1 .


A quotation from Lev 19:12 .


A quotation from Exod 21:24 ; Lev 24:20 .


If anyone forces you to go one mile. In NT times Roman soldiers had the authority to press civilians into service to carry loads for them.


Jesus advocates a generosity and a desire to meet those in dire need with the command give to the one who asks you . This may allude to begging; giving alms was viewed highly in the ancient world ( Matt 6:1-4 ; Deut 15:7-11 ).


A quotation from Lev 19:18 .


The tax collectors would bid to collect taxes for the Roman government and then add a surcharge, which they kept. Since tax collectors worked for Rome, they were viewed as traitors to their own people and were not well liked.


This remark echoes the more common OT statements like Lev 19:2 or Deut 18:13 : “you must be holy as I am holy.”


See the note on synagogues in 4:23 .


The term translated room refers to the inner room of a house, normally without any windows opening outside, the most private location possible (BDAG 988 s.v. ταμεῖον 2).


Pray this way. What follows, although traditionally known as the Lord’s prayer, is really the disciples’ prayer. It represents how they are to approach God, by acknowledging his uniqueness and their need for his provision and protection.


God is addressed in terms of intimacy ( Father ). The original Semitic term here was probably Abba . The term is a little unusual in a personal prayer, especially as it lacks qualification. It is not the exact equivalent of “daddy” (as is sometimes popularly suggested), but it does suggest a close, familial relationship.


Your kingdom come represents the hope for the full manifestation of God’s promised rule.


Seeking heavenly treasure means serving others and honoring God by doing so.


The contrast between hate and love here is rhetorical. The point is that one will choose the favorite if a choice has to be made.


The phrase even more is a typical form of rabbinic argumentation, from the lesser to the greater. If God cares for the little things, surely he will care for the more important things.


includes the words in brackets, indicating doubt as to their authenticity. God’s kingdom is a major theme of Jesus. It is a realm in which Jesus rules and to which those who trust him belong.


The point of the statement do not judge so that you will not be judged is that the standards we apply to others God applies to us. The passive verbs in this verse look to God’s action.


The term translated speck refers to a small piece of wood, chaff, or straw; see L&N 3.66.


The term beam of wood refers to a very big piece of wood, the main beam of a building, in contrast to the speck in the other’s eye (L&N 7.78).


The three present imperatives in this verse ( Ask…seek…knock ) are probably intended to call for a repeated or continual approach before God.


The actions of asking, seeking, and knocking are repeated here from v. 7 with the encouragement that God does respond.


The two questions of vv. 9-10 expect the answer, “No parent would do this!”


The provision of the good gifts is probably a reference to the wisdom and guidance supplied in response to repeated requests. The teaching as a whole stresses not that we get everything we want, but that God gives the good that we need.


Jesus’ teaching as reflected in the phrase treat others as you would want them to treat you , known generally as the Golden Rule, is not completely unique in the ancient world, but here it is stated in its most emphatic, selfless form.


Sheep ’ s clothing…voracious wolves. Jesus uses a metaphor here to point out that these false prophets appear to be one thing, but in reality they are something quite different and dangerous.


The statement illustrates the principle: That which cannot produce fruit does not produce fruit.


The double use of the vocative is normally used in situations of high emotion or emphasis. Even an emphatic confession without action means little.


Jesus’ teaching impressed the hearers with the directness of its claim; he taught with authority . A study of Jewish rabbinic interpretation shows that it was typical to cite a list of authorities to make one’s point. Apparently Jesus addressed the issues in terms of his own understanding.


Touched. This touch would have rendered Jesus ceremonially unclean ( Lev 14:46 ; also Mishnah, m. Nega’im 3.1; 11.1; 12.1; 13.6-12).


The command for silence was probably meant to last only until the cleansing took place with the priests and sought to prevent Jesus’ healings from becoming the central focus of the people’s reaction to him. See also 9:30, 12:16, 16:20, and 17:9 for other cases where Jesus asks for silence concerning him and his ministry.


On the phrase bring the offering that Moses commanded see Lev 14:1-32 .


Capernaum was a town on the northwest shore of the Sea of Galilee, 680 ft (204 m) below sea level. It was a major trade and economic center in the North Galilean region. map For location see Map1-D2 ; Map2-C3 ; Map3-B2 .


A centurion was a noncommissioned officer in the Roman army or one of the auxiliary territorial armies, commanding a centuria of (nominally) 100 men. The responsibilities of centurions were broadly similar to modern junior officers, but there was a wide gap in social status between them and officers, and relatively few were promoted beyond the rank of senior centurion. The Roman troops stationed in Judea were auxiliaries, who would normally be rewarded with Roman citizenship after 25 years of service. Some of the centurions may have served originally in the Roman legions (regular army) and thus gained their citizenship at enlistment. Others may have inherited it, like the apostle Paul did.


While in Matthew’s account the centurion came to him asking for help , Luke’s account ( 7:1-10 ) mentions that the centurion sent some Jewish elders as emissaries on his behalf.


I say to this one ‘Go’ and he goes. The illustrations highlight the view of authority the soldier sees in the word of one who has authority. Since the centurion was a commander of a hundred soldiers, he understood what it was both to command others and to be obeyed.


Weeping and gnashing of teeth is a figure for remorse and trauma, which occurs here because of exclusion from God’s promise.


Note how the author distinguishes healing from exorcism here, implying that the two are not identical.


A quotation from Isa 53:4 .


The statement I will follow you wherever you go is an offer to follow Jesus as a disciple, no matter what the cost.


Jesus’ reply is simply this: Does the man understand the rejection he will be facing? Jesus has no home in the world ( the Son of Man has no place to lay his head ).


There are several options for the meaning of Jesus’ reply Leave the dead to bury their own dead : (1) Recent research suggests that burial customs in the vicinity of Jerusalem from about 20 b.c. to a.d. 70 involved a reinterment of the bones a year after the initial burial, once the flesh had rotted away. At that point the son would have placed his father’s bones in a special box known as an ossuary to be set into the wall of the tomb. Thus Jesus could well be rebuking the man for wanting to wait around for as much as a year before making a commitment to follow him. In 1st century Jewish culture, to have followed Jesus rather than burying one’s father would have seriously dishonored one’s father (cf. Tobit 4:3-4). (2) The remark is an idiom (possibly a proverbial saying) that means, “The matter in question is not the real issue,” in which case Jesus was making a wordplay on the wording of the man’s (literal) request (see L&N 33.137). (3) This remark could be a figurative reference to various kinds of people, meaning, “Let the spiritually dead bury the dead.” (4) It could also be literal and designed to shock the hearer by the surprise of the contrast. Whichever option is preferred, it is clear that the most important priority is to follow Jesus.


A boat that held all the disciples would be of significant size.


Who has authority over the seas and winds is discussed in the OT: Ps 104:3; 135:7; 107:23-30 . When Jesus rebuked the winds and the sea he was making a statement about who he was.


Jesus’ authority over creation raised a question for the disciples about his identity ( What sort of person is this? ). This verse shows that the disciples followed Jesus even though they did not know all about him yet.


sa mae) have “Gerasenes,” which is the reading followed in Luke 8:26 . The difference between Matthew and Luke may be due to uses of variant regional terms. The region of the Gadarenes would be in Gentile territory on the southeastern side of the Sea of Galilee across from Galilee. Luke 8:26 and Mark 5:1 record this miracle as occurring “in the region of the Gerasenes.” “Irrespective of how one settles this issue, for the [second and] Third Evangelist the chief concern is that Jesus has crossed over into Gentile territory, ‘opposite Galilee’” (J. B. Green, Luke [NICNT], 337). The region of Gadara extended to the Sea of Galilee and included the town of Sennabris on the southern shore – the town that the herdsmen most likely entered after the drowning of the pigs.


There was an appointed time in which demons would face their judgment, and they seem to have viewed Jesus’ arrival on the scene as an illegitimate change in God’s plan regarding the time when their sentence would be executed.


His own town refers to Capernaum. It was a town of approximately 1000-1500, though of some significance.


The plural pronoun their makes it clear that Jesus was responding to the faith of the entire group, not just the paralyzed man.


The passive voice here is a divine passive ( ExSyn 437). It is clear that God does the forgiving.


Blaspheming meant to say something that dishonored God. To claim divine prerogatives or claim to speak for God when one really does not would be such an act of offense. The remark raised directly the issue of the nature of Jesus’ ministry.


Which is easier is a reflective kind of question. On the one hand to declare sins are forgiven is easier, since one does not need to see it, unlike telling a paralyzed person to walk. On the other hand, it is harder, because for it to be true one must possess the authority to forgive the sin.