Although BDAG 175 s.v. βῆμα 3 gives the meaning “ tribunal ” for this verse, and a number of modern translations use similar terms (“court,” NIV; “tribunal,” NRSV), since the bema was a standard feature in Greco-Roman cities of the time, there is no need for an alternative translation here. sn The judgment seat ( βῆμα , bhma ) was a raised platform mounted by steps and sometimes furnished with a seat, used by officials in addressing an assembly or making pronouncements, often on judicial matters. The judgment seat was a familiar item in Greco-Roman culture, often located in the agora , the public square or marketplace in the center of a city.


Grk “they brought no charge of any of the evil deeds.” BDAG 31 s.v. αἰτία 3.b has “ αἰτίαν φέρειν … bring an accusation Ac 25:18 .” Since κατήγοροι ( kathgoroi , “accusers”) in the previous clause is somewhat redundant with this, “charge” was used instead.


Or “I was expecting.”


Grk “several controversial issues.” BDAG 428 s.v. ζήτημα states, “in our lit. only in Ac, w. the mng. it still has in Mod. Gk. (controversial) question, issue, argument … Ac 15:2; 26:3 . ζ . περί τινος questions about someth. …18:15; 25:19 .”


On this term see BDAG 216 s.v. δεισιδαιμονία 2. It is a broad term for religion. sn About their own religion. Festus made it clear that in his view as a neutral figure (and as one Luke had noted was disposed to help the Jews), he saw no guilt in Paul. The issue was a simple religious dispute.


Grk “a certain Jesus.”


Or “asserted.”


Or “Because I was undecided.” Grk “Being at a loss.” The participle ἀπορούμενος ( aporoumeno" ) has been translated as a causal adverbial participle.


L&N 27.34 states, “ ἀπορούμενος δὲ ἐγὼ τὴν περὶ τούτων ζήτησιν ‘I was undecided about how I could get information on these matters’ Ac 25:20 . The clause ‘about how I could get information on these matters’ may also be rendered as ‘about how I should try to find out about these matters’ or ‘about how I could learn about these matters.’”


Or “stand trial.”


Grk “on these things.”


A designation of the Roman emperor (in this case, Nero). BDAG 917 s.v. σεβαστός states, “ ὁ Σεβαστός His Majesty the Emperor Ac 25:21, 25 (of Nero).” It was a translation into Greek of the Latin “Augustus.”


Or “to the emperor” (“Caesar” is a title for the Roman emperor).


Grk “said.”


Or “great pageantry” (BDAG 1049 s.v. φαντασία ; the term is a NT hapax legomenon ). sn Agrippa and Bernice came with great pomp. The “royals” were getting their look at Paul. Everyone who was anyone would have been there.


Or “auditorium.” “Auditorium” may suggest to the modern English reader a theater where performances are held. Here it is the large hall where a king or governor would hold audiences. Paul once spoke of himself as a “spectacle” to the world ( 1 Cor 4:8-13 ).


Grk “the chiliarchs” (officers in command of a thousand soldiers). In Greek the term χιλίαρχος ( ciliarco" ) literally described the “commander of a thousand,” but it was used as the standard translation for the Latin tribunus militum or tribunus militare , the military tribune who commanded a cohort of 600 men.


Grk “and Festus ordering, Paul was brought in.” Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, a new sentence was begun in the translation, and καί ( kai ) has not been translated. The participle κελεύσαντος ( keleusanto" ) has been taken temporally.


Probably best understood as rhetorical hyperbole. BDAG 825 s.v. πλῆθος 2.b. γ states, “ people, populace, population … τὸ πλῆθος the populace … ἅπαν τὸ πλ . τῶν ᾿Ιουδαίων Ac 25:24 .” However, the actions of the leadership are seen by Luke as representing the actions of the entire nation, so the remark is not inaccurate.


Or “appealed to” (BDAG 341 s.v. ἐντυγχάνω 1.a).


For location see Map5-B1 ; Map6-F3 ; Map7-E2 ; Map8-F2 ; Map10-B3 ; JP1-F4 ; JP2-F4 ; JP3-F4 ; JP4-F4 .


Or “screaming.”


The participle ἐπικαλεσαμένου ( epikalesamenou ) has been taken temporally. It could also be translated as causal: “and because he appealed…”


A designation of the Roman emperor (in this case, Nero). BDAG 917 s.v. σεβαστός states, “ ὁ Σεβαστός His Majesty the Emperor Ac 25:21, 25 (of Nero).”


The word “him” is not in the Greek text, but is implied. Direct objects were often omitted in Greek when clear from the context, but must be supplied for the modern English reader.


Grk “about whom I have nothing definite…” Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, the relative pronoun (“whom”) was replaced with a personal pronoun (“him”) and a new sentence begun in the translation at the beginning of v. 26 .


Or “investigation.” BDAG 66 s.v. ἀνάκρισις has “a judicial hearing, investigation, hearing, esp. preliminary hearing … τῆς ἀ . γενομένης Ac 25:26 .” This is technical legal language.


L&N 33.153 s.v. σημαίνω , “to cause something to be both specific and clear – ‘to indicate clearly, to make clear’… ‘for it seems unreasonable to me to send a prisoner without clearly indicating the charges against him’ Ac 25:27 .” sn Without clearly indicating the charges against him. Again the point is made by Festus himself that there is difficulty even in articulating a charge against Paul.


Grk “It is permitted for you.”


Or “extended his hand” (a speaker’s gesture).


Or “and began to speak in his own defense.”


BDAG 613 s.v. μάλιστα 1 states, “ μ . γνώστην ὄντα σε since you are outstandingly familiar Ac 26:3 .”


Grk “several controversial issues.” BDAG 428 s.v. ζήτημα states, “in our lit. only in Ac, w. the mng. it still has in Mod. Gk. (controversial) question, issue, argument … Ac 15:2; 26:3 . ζ . περί τινος questions about someth. …18:15; 25:19 .”


BDAG 218 s.v. δέομαι states, “In our lit. only w. the mng. to ask for something pleadingly, ask, request ,” and then in section a. α states, “w. inf. foll.… Ac 26:3 .”


Grk “my manner of life.”


Or “nation.”


These words are repeated from v. 4 (“all the Jews know”). Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, it was necessary to begin a new sentence at the beginning of v. 5 in the translation, but for this to make sense, the main verb ἵσασι ( {isasi ) has to be repeated to connect with the ὅτι ( Joti ) clause (indirect discourse) in v. 5 .


Grk “having known me from time past.” The participle προγινώσκοντες ( proginwskonte" ) has been translated as a causal adverbial participle.


BDAG 866 s.v. προγινώσκω 2 has “ Know from time past … προγινώσκοντές με ἄνωθεν Ac 26:5 .” L&N 28.6 states, “‘they have already known me beforehand, if they are willing to testify’ Ac 26:5 .”


That is, strictest religious party. “Party” alone is used in the translation because “the strictest religious party of our religion” would be redundant.


BDAG 568 s.v. κρίνω 5.a. α has “ κρίνεσθαι ἐπί τινι be on trial because of a thing Ac 26:6 .”


Or “forefathers”; Grk “fathers.”


Grk “to which [promise] our twelve tribes…” The antecedent of the relative pronoun (the promise in v. 6 ) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


Or “earnestly worship.” The object of this service, God, is omitted but implied: BDAG 587 s.v. λατρεύω states, “Without the dat. of the one to whom service is given: ἐν ἐκτενείᾳ νύκτα κ . ἡμέραν λ . serve (God) earnestly night and day Ac 26:7 .” Although clear from the context in Greek, “God” must be supplied as the recipient of the service for the modern English reader.


Grk “I am being accused by the Jews.” The passive construction was simplified by converting it to an active one in the translation.


Grk “O King!”


The word “people” is not in the Greek text, but has been supplied to indicate that the second person pronoun (“you”) is plural (others in addition to King Agrippa are being addressed).


BDAG 568 s.v. κρίνω 3 states, “ τί ἄπιστον κρίνεται παρ᾿ ὑμῖν ; why do you think it is incredible? Ac 26:8 .” The passive construction (“why is it thought unbelievable…”) has been converted to an active one to simplify the translation.


Or “incredible.” BDAG 103 s.v. ἄπιστος 1 states, “ unbelievable, incredible … τί ἄπιστον κρίνεται παρ᾿ ὑμῖν …; why does it seem incredible to you? Ac 26:8 .”


Grk “if.” The first-class conditional construction, which assumes reality for the sake of argument, has been translated as indirect discourse.


BDAG 737 s.v. οὖν 3 states, “It has been proposed that some traces of older Gk. usage in which οὖν is emphatic, = certainly, really, to be sure etc. (s. L-S-J-M s.v. 1 ) remain in the pap…and in the NT… indeed, of course Ac 26:9 .”


Grk “I thought to myself.” BDAG 255 s.v. δοκέω 2.a has “ ἔδοξα ἐμαυτῷ δεῖν πρᾶξαι = Lat. mihi videbar I was convinced that it was necessary to do Ac 26:9 .”


Grk “by receiving authority.” The participle λαβών ( labwn ) has been taken instrumentally.


Grk “cast down a pebble against them.” L&N 30.103 states, “(an idiom, Grk ‘to bring a pebble against someone,’ a reference to a white or black pebble used in voting for or against someone) to make known one’s choice against someone – ‘to vote against.’ …‘when they were sentenced to death, I also voted against them’ Ac 26:10 .”


Grk “when they were being executed”; but the context supports the sentencing rather than the execution itself (cf. L&N 30.103).


Grk “and punishing…I tried.” The participle τιμωρῶν ( timwrwn ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style. Because of the difference between Greek style, which often begins sentences or clauses with “and,” and English style, which generally does not, καί ( kai ) has not been translated here.


The imperfect verb ἠνάγκαζον ( hnankazon ) has been translated as a conative imperfect (so BDAG 60 s.v. ἀναγκάζω 1, which has “ ἠνάγκαζον βλασφημεῖν I tried to force them to blaspheme Ac 26:11 ”).


Or “was so insanely angry with them.” BDAG 322 s.v. ἐμμαίνομαι states, “to be filled with such anger that one appears to be mad, be enraged … περισσῶς ἐμμαινόμενος αὐτοῖς being furiously enraged at them Ac 26:11 ”; L&N 88.182 s.v. ἐμμαίνομαι , “to be so furiously angry with someone as to be almost out of one’s mind – ‘to be enraged, to be infuriated, to be insanely angry’ …‘I was so infuriated with them that I even went to foreign cities to persecute them’ Ac 26:11 .”


Or “I pursued them even as far as foreign cities.”


Grk “in which [activity].” Due to the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, a new sentence was started at the beginning of v. 12 in the translation. The referent of the relative pronoun (“which”) was specified as “this very thing” for clarity.


Grk “going.” The participle πορευόμενος ( poreuomenos ) has been taken temporally.


L&N 37.40 s.v. ἐπιτροπή states, “the full authority to carry out an assignment or commission – ‘authority, complete power.’ πορευόμενος εἰς τὴν Δαμασκὸν μετ᾿ ἐξουσίας καὶ ἐπιτροπῆς τῶν ἀρχιερέων ‘going to Damascus with authority and complete power from the high priests’ Ac 26:12 . In Ac 26:12 the combination of ἐξουσία and ἐπιτροπή serves to reinforce the sense of complete authority.”


Grk “O King.”


Or “from the sky” (the same Greek word means both “heaven” and “sky”).


The word “everywhere” has been supplied in the translation to clarify the meaning of περιλάμψαν ( perilamyan ). Otherwise the modern reader might think that each of the individuals were encircled by lights or halos. See also Acts 9:7; 22:6, 9 .


Grk “in the Hebrew language.” See Acts 22:7 and 9:4 .


Grk “It is hard for you.”


“Goads” are pointed sticks used to direct a draft animal (an idiom for stubborn resistance). See BDAG 539-40 s.v. κέντρον 2. sn Sayings which contain the imagery used here ( kicking against the goads ) were also found in Greek writings; see Pindar, Pythians 2.94-96; Euripides, Bacchae 795.


Grk “said.”


L&N 30.89 has “‘to choose in advance, to select beforehand, to designate in advance.’”


BDAG 719 s.v. ὁράω A.1.b states, “W. attraction of the relative ὧν = τούτων ἅ Lk 9:36 ; Ac 22:15 . The attraction may be due to colloq. breviloquence in μάρτυρα ὧν τε εἶδες με ὧν τε ὀφθήσομαί σοι a witness to the things in which you saw me and to those in which I shall appear to you Ac 26:16 b.”


includes the word in brackets, indicating some doubt as to its authenticity.


Grk “rescuing.” Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, the participle ἐξαιρούμενος ( exairoumeno" ) has been translated as a finite verb and a new sentence started in the translation at the beginning of v. 17 .


That is, from the Jewish people. Grk “the people”; the words “your own” have been supplied to clarify the meaning.


The antecedent of the relative pronoun is probably both the Jews (“your own people”) and the Gentiles, indicating the comprehensive commission Paul received.


BDAG 352-53 s.v. ἐξουσία 2 states, “Also of Satan’s power Ac 26:18 .” It is also possible to translate this “the domain of Satan” (cf. BDAG 353 s.v. 6 )


Or “and an inheritance.”


‘sky,’ but it seems preferable to regard οὐράνιος in this context as meaning simply ‘from heaven’ or ‘heavenly.’”


BDAG 1093-94 s.v. χώρα 2.b states, “of the provincial name (1 Macc 8:3) ἡ χώρα τῆς ᾿Ιουδαίας Ac 26:20 .”


BDAG 93 s.v. ἄξιος 1.b, “ καρποὶ ἄ . τῆς μετανοίας fruits in keeping with your repentance … Lk 3:8 ; Mt 3:8 . For this ἄ . τῆς μετανοίας ἔργα Ac 26:20 .” Note how Paul preached the gospel offer and the issue of response together, side by side.


Grk “in the temple.” This is actually a reference to the courts surrounding the temple proper, and has been translated accordingly.


Grk “So experiencing…I stand.” The participle τυχών ( tucwn ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style.


BDAG 311 s.v. ἐκτός 3.b, “functions as prep. w. gen. οὐδὲν ἐ . ὧν nothing except what (cf. 1 Ch 29:3 ; 2 Ch 17:19 ; TestNapht. 6:2 ) Ac 26:22 .”


BDAG 277-78 s.v. εἰ 2 has “marker of an indirect question as content, that …Sim. also (Procop. Soph., Ep. 123 χάριν ἔχειν εἰ = that) μαρτυρόμενος … εἰ παθητὸς ὁ Χριστός testifying … that the Christ was to suffer … Ac 26:23 .”


Or “the Messiah”; both “Christ” (Greek) and “Messiah” (Hebrew and Aramaic) mean “one who has been anointed.” sn See the note on Christ in 2:31 .


That is, to the Jewish people. Grk “the people”; the word “our” has been supplied to clarify the meaning.


Grk “he”; the referent (Paul) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


On the term translated “lost your mind” see BDAG 610 s.v. μαίνομαι , which has “ you’re out of your mind , you’re raving , said to one whose enthusiasm seems to have outrun better judgment 26:24 .” sn The expression “You have lost your mind” would be said to someone who speaks incredible things, in the opinion of the hearer. Paul’s mention of the resurrection (v. 23 ) was probably what prompted Festus to say this.


Grk “said.”


Or “declaring.” BDAG 125 s.v. ἀποφθέγγομαι states, “ speak out, declare boldly or loudly… τὶ : σωφροσύνης ῥήματα Ac 26:25 .”


BDAG 987 s.v. σωφροσύνη 1 has “gener. soundness of mind, reasonableness, rationality … ἀληθείας καὶ σωφροσύνης ῥήματα true and rational words (opp. μαίνομαι ) Ac 26:25 .”


BDAG 782 s.v. παρρησιάζομαι 1 states, “ speak freely, openly, fearlessly …likew. in the ptc. w. a verb of saying foll.… παρρησιασάμενοι εἶπαν 13:46 . – 26:26 .” This could refer to boldness in speaking here.


Grk “to whom I am speaking freely.” The relative pronoun (“whom”) was replaced by the personal pronoun (“him”) to simplify the translation.


Grk “I cannot convince myself.” BDAG 792 s.v. πείθω 3.a states, “ οὐ πείθομαι w. acc. and inf. I cannot believe Ac 26:26 ” (see also BDAG 586 s.v. λανθάνω ).


BDAG 586 s.v. λανθάνω states, “ λανθάνειν αὐτὸν τούτων οὐ πείθομαι οὐθέν I cannot bring myself to believe that any of these things has escaped his notice Ac 26:26 .”


This term refers to a hidden corner (BDAG 209 s.v. γωνία ). Paul’s point is that these events to which he refers were not done in a secret, hidden place, tucked away outside of view. They were done in public for all the world to see.


Or “In a short time you will make me a Christian.” On the difficulty of the precise nuances of Agrippa’s reply in this passage, see BDAG 791 s.v. πείθω 1.b. The idiom is like 1 Kgs 21:7 LXX. The point is that Paul was trying to persuade Agrippa to accept his message. If Agrippa had let Paul persuade him, he would have converted to Christianity. sn The question “ In such a short time are you persuading me to become a Christian? ” was probably a ploy on Agrippa’s part to deflect Paul from his call for a decision. Note also how the tables have turned: Agrippa was brought in to hear Paul’s defense, and now ends up defending himself. The questioner is now being questioned.


BDAG 703 s.v. ὀλίγος 2.b. β has “ καὶ ἐν ὀλ . καὶ ἐν μεγάλῳ whether in a short or a long time vs. 29 (cf. B-D-F §195; GWhitaker, The Words of Agrippa to St. Paul: JTS 15, 1914, 82f; AFridrichsen, SymbOsl 14, ’35, 50; Field, Notes 141-43; s. Rob. 653).”


Grk “they spoke to one another saying.” The participle λέγοντες ( legontes ) is redundant in English and has not been translated.


BDAG 93 s.v. ἄξιος 1.b has “ θανάτου ἢ δεσμῶν ἄ . nothing deserving death or imprisonment 23:29; 26:31.” sn Not doing anything deserving death… Here is yet another declaration of Paul’s innocence, but still no release. The portrayal shows how unjust Paul’s confinement was.


Or “set free.”


Or “to the emperor” (“Caesar” is a title for the Roman emperor). sn If he had not appealed to Caesar. Ultimately Agrippa and Festus blamed what Paul himself had done in appealing to Caesar for his own continued custody. In terms of Luke’s narrative, this still appears unjust and a denial of responsibility.


According to BDAG 917 s.v. σεβαστός , “In σπεῖρα Σεβαστή 27:1 (cp. OGI 421) Σεβαστή is likew. an exact transl. of Lat. Augusta, an honorary title freq. given to auxiliary troops (Ptolem. renders it Σεβαστή in connection w. three legions that bore it: 2, 3, 30; 2, 9, 18; 4, 3, 30) imperial cohort .” According to W. Foerster ( TDNT 7:175), “In Ac. 27:1 the σπεῖρα Σεβαστή is an expression also found elsewhere for ‘auxiliary troops.’” In no case would this refer to a special imperial bodyguard, and to translate “imperial regiment” or “imperial cohort” might give this impression. There is some archaeological evidence for a Cohors Augusta I stationed in Syria during the time of Augustus, but whether this is the same unit is very debatable. sn The Augustan Cohort. A cohort was a Roman military unit of about 600 soldiers, one-tenth of a legion. There is considerable debate over the identification of this particular cohort and the meaning of the title Augustan mentioned here. These may well have been auxiliary (provincial) troops given the honorary title.


Grk “Going on board.” The participle ἐπιβάντες ( epibante" ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style.


Grk “places.”


Grk “Asia”; in the NT this always refers to the Roman province of Asia, made up of about one-third of the west and southwest end of modern Asia Minor. Asia lay to the west of the region of Phrygia and Galatia. The words “the province of” are supplied to indicate to the modern reader that this does not refer to the continent of Asia.


BDAG 62 s.v. ἀνάγω 4 states, “as a nautical t.t. ( ἀ . τὴν ναῦν put a ship to sea), mid. or pass. ἀνάγεσθαι to begin to go by boat, put out to sea .” sn Although not explicitly stated, the ship put out to sea from the port of Caesarea (where the previous events had taken place (cf. 25:13 ) and then sailed along the Asiatic coast (the first stop was Sidon , v. 3 ).


For location see JP1-C1 ; JP2-C1 ; JP3-C1 ; JP4-C1 .


BDAG 516 s.v. κατάγω states, “Hence the pass., in act. sense, of ships and seafarers put in εἴς τι at a harbor … εἰς Σιδῶνα Ac 27:3 .”


BDAG 1056 s.v. φιλανθρώπως states, “ benevolently, kindly φιλανθρώπως χρῆσθαί ( τινι ) treat someone in kindly fashion … Ac 27:3 .” sn Treating Paul kindly. Paul’s treatment followed the pattern of the earlier imprisonment (cf. Acts 24:23 ).


Grk “to go to his friends to be cared for.” The scene is an indication of Christian hospitality.


Grk “putting out to sea.” The participle ἀναχθέντες ( anacqente" ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style. BDAG 62 s.v. ἀνάγω 4 states, “as a nautical t.t. ( ἀ . τὴν ναῦν put a ship to sea), mid. or pass. ἀνάγεσθαι to begin to go by boat, put out to sea .”


BDAG 1040 s.v. ὑποπλέω states, “ sail under the lee of an island, i.e. in such a way that the island protects the ship fr. the wind Ac 27:4, 7 .” Thus they were east and north of the island.


Grk “the depths,” the deep area of a sea far enough from land that it is not protected by the coast (L&N 1.73).


BDAG 531 s.v. κατέρχομαι 2 states, “Of ships and those who sail in them, who ‘come down’ fr. the ‘high seas’: arrive, put in… ἔις τι at someth. a harbor 18:22; 21:3; 27:5 .”


Grk “finding.” The participle εὑρών ( Jeurwn ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style.


The participle βραδυπλοοῦντες ( braduploounte" ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style.


This genitive absolute construction with προσεῶντος ( prosewnto" ) has been translated as a causal adverbial participle. L&N 13.139 translates the phrase μὴ προσεῶντος ἡμᾶς τοῦ ἀνέμου ( mh prosewnto" Jhma" tou anemou ) as “the wind would not let us go any farther.”


BDAG 1040 s.v. ὑποπλέω states, “ sail under the lee of an island, i.e. in such a way that the island protects the ship fr. the wind Ac 27:4, 7 .”


Grk “sailing along the coast…we came.” The participle παραλεγόμενοι ( paralegomenoi ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style. L&N 54.8, “ παραλέγομαι : (a technical, nautical term) to sail along beside some object – ‘to sail along the coast, to sail along the shore.’ …‘they sailed along the coast of Crete’ Ac 27:13 .”


Grk “it”; the referent (Crete) has been supplied in the translation for clarity.


Or “unsafe” (BDAG 383 s.v. ἐπισφαλής ). The term is a NT hapax legomenon .


The accusative articular infinitive παρεληλυθέναι ( parelhluqenai ) after the preposition διά ( dia ) is causal. BDAG 776 s.v. παρέρχομαι 2 has “ διὰ τὸ τὴν νηστείαν ἤδη παρεληλυθέναι because the fast was already over Ac 27:9 .”


Grk “Paul advised, saying to them.” The participle λέγων ( legwn ) is redundant in English and has not been translated. On the term translated “advised,” see BDAG 764 s.v. παραινέω , which usually refers to recommendations. sn Paul advised them. A literary theme surfaces here: Though Paul is under arrest, he will be the one to guide them all through the dangers of the storm and shipwreck, showing clearly God’s presence and protection of him. The story is told in great detail. This literary effect of slowing down the passage of time and narrating with many details serves to add a sense of drama to the events described.


Grk “is going to be with disaster.”


Or “hardship,” “damage.” BDAG 1022 s.v. ὕβρις 3 states, “fig. hardship, disaster, damage caused by the elements…w. ζημία Ac 27:10 .”


Grk “souls” (here, one’s physical life).


Or “persuaded.”


BDAG 456 s.v. κυβερνήτης 1 has “one who is responsible for the management of a ship, shipmaster …W. ναύκληρος , the ‘shipowner’… Ac 27:11 ” See further L. Casson, Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World , 316-18.


Grk “than by what was said by Paul.” The passive construction has been converted to an active one to simplify the translation. sn More convinced by the captain and the ship’s owner than by what Paul said. The position taken by the centurion was logical, since he was following “professional” advice. But this was not a normal voyage.


BDAG 181-82 s.v. βουλή 2.a, “ β . τίθεσθαι ( Judg 19:30 ; Ps 12:3 ) decide 27:12 (w. inf. foll.).”


BDAG 62 s.v. ἀνάγω 4, “as a nautical t.t. ( ἀ . τὴν ναῦν put a ship to sea), mid. or pass. ἀνάγεσθαι to begin to go by boat, put out to sea .”


Grk “from there, if somehow” Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, a new sentence was begun here in the translation and the introductory phrase “They hoped that” supplied (with the subject, “they,” repeated from the previous clause) to make a complete English sentence.


Grk “if somehow, reaching Phoenix, they could…” The participle καταντήσαντες ( katanthsante" ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style.


Or “a harbor of Crete open to the southwest and northwest.”


Grk “thinking.” The participle δόξαντες ( doxante" ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style.


Or “accomplish.” L&N 68.29, for κρατέω , has “to be able to complete or finish, presumably despite difficulties – ‘to accomplish, to do successfully, to carry out.’ …‘thinking that they could carry out their purpose’ Ac 27:13 .”


Or “departed.”


L&N 54.8, “ παραλέγομαι : (a technical, nautical term) to sail along beside some object – ‘to sail along the coast, to sail along the shore.’…‘they sailed along the coast of Crete’ Ac 27:13 .” With the addition of the adverb ἆσσον ( asson ) this becomes “sailed close along the coast of Crete.”


Grk “a wind like a typhoon.” That is, a very violent wind like a typhoon or hurricane (BDAG 1021 s.v. τυφωνικός ).


Grk “from it”; the referent (the island) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


Or “was forced off course.” Grk “The ship being caught in it.” The genitive absolute construction with the participle συναρπασθέντος ( sunarpasqento" ) has been taken temporally; it could also be translated as causal (“Because the ship was caught in it”).


BDAG 91 s.v. ἀντοφθαλμέω states, “Metaph. of a ship τοῦ πλοίου μὴ δυναμένοι ἀ . τῷ ἀνέμῳ since the ship was not able to face the wind , i.e. with its bow headed against the forces of the waves Ac 27:15 .”


BDAG 1042 s.v. ὑποτρέχω states, “ run or sail under the lee of , nautical t.t.… Ac 27:16 .” The participle ὑποδραμόντες ( Jupodramonte" ) has been taken temporally (“as we ran under the lee of”). While this could also be translated as a participle of means (“by running…”) this might suggest the ship was still under a greater degree of control by its crew than it probably was.


Grk “After hoisting it up, they…”; the referent (the ship’s crew) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


The participle ἄραντες ( arantes ) has been taken temporally.


Possibly “ropes” or “cables”; Grk “helps” (a word of uncertain meaning; probably a nautical technical term, BDAG 180 s.v. βοήθεια 2).


BDAG 308 s.v. ἐκπίπτω 2 states, “ drift off course, run aground , nautical term εἴς τι on someth… .on the Syrtis 27:17 .”


That is, on the sandbars and shallows of the Syrtis. sn On the Syrtis. The Syrtis was the name of two gulfs on the North African coast (modern Libya), feared greatly by sailors because of their shifting sandbars and treacherous shallows. The Syrtis here is the so-called Great Syrtis, toward Cyrenaica. It had a horrible reputation as a sailors’ graveyard (Pliny, Natural History 5.26). Josephus ( J. W. 2.16.4 [2.381]) says the name alone struck terror in those who heard it. It was near the famous Scylla and Charybdis mentioned in Homer’s Odyssey .


Or perhaps “mainsail.” The meaning of this word is uncertain. BDAG 927 s.v. σκεῦος 1 has “ τὸ σκεῦος Ac 27:17 seems to be the kedge or driving anchor ” while C. Maurer ( TDNT 7:362) notes, “The meaning in Ac. 27:17 : χαλάσαντες τὸ σκεῦος , is uncertain. Prob. the ref. is not so much to taking down the sails as to throwing the draganchor overboard to lessen the speed of the ship.” In spite of this L&N 6.1 states, “In Ac 27:17 , for example, the reference of σκεῦος is generally understood to be the mainsail.” A reference to the sail is highly unlikely because in a storm of the force described in Ac 27:14 , the sail would have been taken down and reefed immediately, to prevent its being ripped to shreds or torn away by the gale.


BDAG 980 s.v. σφόδρῶς states, “ very much, greatly, violently… σφ . χειμάζεσθαι be violently beaten by a storm Ac 27:18 .”


Or “jettisoning [the cargo]” (a nautical technical term). The words “the cargo” are not in the Greek text but are implied. Direct objects were often omitted in Greek when clear from the context, but must be supplied for the modern English reader. sn The desperation of the sailors in throwing the cargo overboard is reminiscent of Jonah 1:5 . At this point they were only concerned with saving themselves.


Or “rigging,” “tackle”; Grk “the ship’s things.” Here the more abstract “gear” is preferred to “rigging” or “tackle” as a translation for σκεῦος ( skeuos ) because in v. 40 the sailors are still able to raise the (fore)sail, which they could not have done if the ship’s rigging or tackle had been jettisoned here.


Grk “no small storm” = a very great storm.


Grk “no small storm pressing on us.” The genitive absolute construction with the participle ἐπικειμένου ( epikeimenou ) has been translated as parallel to the previous genitive absolute construction (which was translated as temporal). BDAG 373 s.v. ἐπίκειμαι 2.b states, “of impersonal force confront χειμῶνος ἐπικειμένου since a storm lay upon us Ac 27:20 .” L&N 14.2, “‘the stormy weather did not abate in the least’ or ‘the violent storm continued’ Ac 27:20 .” To this last was added the idea of “battering” from the notion of “pressing upon” inherent in ἐπίκειμαι ( epikeimai ).


Grk “finally all hope that we would be saved was abandoned.” The passive construction has been converted to an active one to simplify the translation. This represents a clearly secular use of the term σῴζω ( swzw ) in that it refers to deliverance from the storm. At this point those on board the ship gave up hope of survival.


Or “Since they had no desire to eat for a long time.” The genitive absolute construction with the participle ὑπαρχούσης ( Juparcoush" ) has been translated as a causal adverbial participle. It could also be translated temporally (“When many of them had no desire to eat”). The translation of πολλῆς ( pollhs ) as a substantized adjective referring to the people on board the ship (“many of them”) rather than a period of time (“for a long time”; so most modern versions) follows BDAG 143 s.v. ἀσιτία , which has “ πολλῆς ἀ . ὑπαρχούσης since almost nobody wanted to eat because of anxiety or seasickness… Ac 27:21 .” This detail indicates how turbulent things were on board the ship.


Here τότε ( tote ) is redundant (pleonastic) according to BDAG 1012-13 s.v. τότε 2; thus it has not been translated.


Grk “standing up…said.” The participle σταθείς ( staqeis ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style.


L&N 36.12 has “ πειθαρχήσαντάς μοι μὴ ἀνάγεσθαι ἀπὸ τῆς Κρήτης ‘you should have listened to me and not have sailed from Crete’ Ac 27:21 .” sn By saying “ you should have listened to me and not put out to sea from Crete ” Paul was not “rubbing it in,” but was reasserting his credibility before giving his next recommendation.


BDAG 62 s.v. ἀνάγω 4, “as a nautical t.t. ( ἀ . τὴν ναῦν put a ship to sea), mid. or pass. ἀνάγεσθαι to begin to go by boat, put out to sea .”


The infinitive κερδῆσαι ( kerdhsai ) has been translated as resultative.


The same verb is used for Paul’s original recommendation in Ac 27:9 .


Grk “except the ship.” Here “but” is used to translate the improper preposition πλήν ( plhn ; see BDAG 826 s.v. πλήν 2) since an exception like this, where two different categories of objects are involved (people and a ship), is more naturally expressed in contemporary English with an adversative (“but”). The words “will be lost” are also supplied for clarity. sn The “prophecy” about the ship serves to underscore Paul’s credibility as an agent of God. Paul addressed his audience carefully and drew attention to the sovereign knowledge of God.


Grk “of whom I am.” The relative clause with its possessive was translated following L&N 15.86 s.v. παρίσταμαι .


Or “worship.”


Or “stood by me.” BDAG 778 s.v. παρίστημι / παριστάνω 2.a. α states, “ approach, come τινί (to) someone … Ac 9:39; 27:23 .”


Grk “came to me saying.” The participle λέγων ( legwn ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style.


BDAG 778 s.v. παρίστημι / παριστάνω 2.a. α states, “Also as a t.t. of legal usage appear before, come before … Καίσαρι σε δεῖ παραστῆναι you must stand before the Emperor (as judge) Ac 27:24 .” See Acts 23:11 . Luke uses the verb δεῖ ( dei ) to describe what must occur.


Or “before the emperor” (“Caesar” is a title for the Roman emperor).


Grk “God has graciously granted you all who are sailing with you.” The words “the safety of” have been supplied to clarify the meaning of the verb κεχάρισται ( kecaristai ) in this context. sn The safety of all who are sailing with you. In a sense, Paul’s presence protects them all. For Luke, it serves as a picture of what the gospel does through Christ and through the one who brings the message.


BDAG 817 s.v. πιστεύω 1.c states, “w. pers. and thing added π . τινί τι believe someone with regard to someth ….W. dat. of pers. and ὅτι foll…. πιστεύετέ μοι ὅτι ἐγὼ ἐν τῷ πατρί J 14:11 a. Cp. 4:21 ; Ac 27:25 .”


This is another use of δεῖ ( dei ) to indicate necessity (see also v. 24 ). Acts 28:1 shows the fulfillment of this.


Here “being driven” has been used to translate διαφέρω ( diaferw ) rather than “drifting,” because it is clear from the attempt to drop anchors in v. 29 that the ship is still being driven by the gale. “Drifting” implies lack of control, but not necessarily rapid movement.


Grk “suspected that some land was approaching them.” BDAG 876 s.v. προσάγω 2.a states, “lit. ὑπενόουν προσάγειν τινά αὐτοῖς χώραν they suspected that land was near (lit. ‘approaching them’) Ac 27:27 .” Current English idiom would speak of the ship approaching land rather than land approaching the ship.


Grk “Heaving the lead, they found.” The participle βολίσαντες ( bolisante" ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style. See also BDAG 180 s.v. βολίζω . Although the term is used twice in this verse (and thus is technically not a NT hapax legomenon ), it occurs nowhere else in the NT.


L&N 15.12, “ βραχὺ δὲ διαστήσαντες ‘when they had gone a little farther’ Ac 27:28 .”


Grk “fearing.” The participle φοβούμενοι ( foboumenoi ) has been translated as a causal adverbial participle.


Grk “against a rough [rocky] place.” L&N 79.84 has “ φοβούμενοί τε μή που κατὰ τραχεῖς τόποις ἐκπέσωμεν ‘we were afraid that we would run aground on the rocky coast’ Ac 27:29 .”


Grk “throwing out…they.” The participle ῥίψαντες ( rJiyante" ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style.


BDAG 417 s.v. εὔχομαι 2 states, “ wish … τὶ for someth. …Foll. by acc. and inf…. Ac 27:29 .” The other possible meaning for this term, “pray,” is given in BDAG 417 s.v. 1 and employed by a number of translations (NAB, NRSV, NIV). If this meaning is adopted here, then “prayed for day to come” must be understood metaphorically to mean “prayed that they would live to see the day,” or “prayed that it would soon be day.”


Grk “and wished for day to come about.” sn And wished for day to appear. The sailors were hoping to hold the ship in place until morning, when they could see what was happening and where they were.


BDAG 889 s.v. πρόφασις 2 states, “ προφάσει ὡς under the pretext that, pretending that … Ac 27:30 .” In other words, some of the sailors gave up hope that such efforts would work and instead attempted to escape while pretending to help.


Or “let it fall away.” According to BDAG 308 s.v. ἐκπίπτω 1 and 2 the meaning of the verb in this verse could be either “fall away” or “drift away.” Either meaning is acceptable, and the choice between them depends almost entirely on how one reconstructs the scene. Since cutting the boat loose would in any case result in it drifting away (whether capsized or not), the meaning “drift away” as a nautical technical term has been used here.


BDAG 160 s.v. ἄχρι 1.b. α has “ ἄ . οὗ ἡμέρα ἤμελλεν γίνεσθαι until the day began to dawn 27:33.”


Or “have waited anxiously.” Grk “waiting anxiously.” The participle προσδοκῶντες ( prosdokwnte" ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style.


Or “continued.”


Grk “having eaten nothing.” The participle προσλαβόμενοι ( proslabomenoi ) has been translated as a finite verb (with subject “you” supplied) due to requirements of contemporary English style.


Or “necessary.” BDAG 873-74 s.v. πρός 1 has “ πρ . τῆς σωτηρίας in the interest of safety Ac 27:34 ”; L&N 27.18 has “‘therefore, I urge you to take some food, for this is important for your deliverance’ or ‘…for your survival’ Ac 27:34 .”


Or “deliverance” (‘salvation’ in a nontheological sense).


Grk “he”; the referent (Paul) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


Grk “taking bread, gave thanks.” The participle λαβών ( labwn ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style.


Or “before them all,” but here this could be misunderstood to indicate a temporal sequence.


Grk “and breaking it, he began.” The participle κλάσας ( klasas ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style.


One early ms (B) and an early version (sa) read “about seventy-six.” For discussion of how this variant probably arose, see F. F. Bruce, The Acts of the Apostles , 465.


Or “When they had eaten their fill.”


Or “grain.”


Or “observed,” “saw.”


Or “gulf” (BDAG 557 s.v. κόλπος 3).


That is, released. Grk “slipping…leaving.” The participles περιελόντες ( perielonte" ) and εἴων ( eiwn ) have been translated as finite verbs due to requirements of contemporary English style.


The term is used of a ship’s anchor. (BDAG 12 s.v. ἄγκυρα a).


Grk “bands”; possibly “ropes.”


Or “rudders.”


Grk “hoisting…they.” The participle ἐπάραντες ( eparante" ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style.


Grk “sail”; probably a reference to the foresail.


BDAG 533 s.v. κατέχω 7 states, “ hold course, nautical t.t., intr…. κατεῖχον εἰς τὸν αἰγιαλόν they headed for the beach Ac 27:40 .”


Grk “fell upon a place of two seas.” The most common explanation for this term is that it refers to a reef or sandbar with the sea on both sides, as noted in BDAG 245 s.v. διθάλασσος : the “ τόπος δ . Ac 27:41 is a semantic unit signifying a point (of land jutting out with water on both sides).” However, Greek had terms for a “sandbank” ( θῖς [ qis ], ταινία [ tainia ]), a “reef” ( ἑρμα [ Jerma ]), “strait” ( στενόν [ stenon ]), “promontory” ( ἀρωτήρον [ arwthron ]), and other nautical hazards, none of which are used by the author here. NEB here translates τόπον διθάλασσον ( topon diqalasson ) as “cross-currents,” a proposal close to that advanced by J. M. Gilchrist, “The Historicity of Paul’s Shipwreck,” JSNT 61 (1996): 29-51, who suggests the meaning is “a patch of cross-seas,” where the waves are set at an angle to the wind, a particular hazard for sailors. Thus the term most likely refers to some sort of adverse sea conditions rather than a topographical feature like a reef or sandbar.


Or “violence” (BDAG 175 s.v. βία a).


The participle ἐκκολυμβήσας ( ekkolumbhsa" ) has been taken instrumentally.


Or “wanting to rescue Paul.” sn Thanks to the centurion who wanted to save Paul’s life , Paul was once more rescued from a potential human threat.


BDAG 347 s.v. I. ἔξειμι has “ ἐπὶ τὴν γῆν get to land Ac 27:43 .”


The words “were to follow” are not in the Greek text, but are implied. They must be supplied to clarify the sense in contemporary English.


Or “boards” according to BDAG 913 s.v. σανίς .


Grk “on pieces from the ship”; that is, pieces of wreckage from the ship. sn Both the planks and pieces of the ship were for the weak or nonswimmers. The whole scene is a historical metaphor representing how listening to Paul and his message could save people.


Grk “And in this way it happened that.” The introductory phrase ἐγένετο ( egeneto , “it happened that”), common in Luke (69 times) and Acts (54 times), is redundant in contemporary English and has not been translated.


Grk “We having been brought safely through” [to land] (same verb as 27:44 ). The word “shore” is implied, and the slight variations in translation from 27:44 have been made to avoid redundancy in English. The participle διασωθέντες ( diaswqente" ) has been taken temporally.


Although this is literally βάρβαροι ( barbaroi ; “foreigners, barbarians”) used for non-Greek or non-Romans, as BDAG 166 s.v. βάρβαρος 2.b notes, “Of the inhabitants of Malta, who apparently spoke in their native language Ac 28:2, 4 (here β . certainly without derogatory tone…).”


BDAG 1019 s.v. τυγχάνω 2.d states, “ δυνάμεις οὐ τὰς τυχούσας extraordinary miracles Ac 19:11 . Cp. 28:2 .”


Or “because it was about to rain.” BDAG 418 s.v. ἐφίστημι 4 states, “ διὰ τ . ὑετὸν τὸν ἐφεστῶτα because it had begun to rain Ac 28:2 …But the mng. here could also be because it threatened to rain (s. 6).”


Or “sticks.”


Grk “his”; the referent (Paul) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


That is, the goddess Justice has not allowed him to live. BDAG 250 s.v. δίκη 2 states, “ Justice personified as a deity Ac 28:4 ”; L&N 12.27, “a goddess who personifies justice in seeking out and punishing the guilty – ‘the goddess Justice.’ ἡ δίκη ζῆν οὐκ εἴασεν ‘the goddess Justice would not let him live’ Ac 28:4 .” Although a number of modern English translations have rendered δίκη ( dikh ) “justice,” preferring to use an abstraction, in the original setting it is almost certainly a reference to a pagan deity. In the translation, the noun “justice” was capitalized and the reflexive pronoun “herself” was supplied to make the personification clear. This was considered preferable to supplying a word like ‘goddess’ in connection with δίκη .


BDAG 737 s.v. οὖν 4 indicates the particle has an adversative sense here: “ but, however .”


Grk “he”; the referent (Paul) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


Grk “shaking the creature off…he suffered no harm.” The participle ἀποτινάξας ( apotinaxa" ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style.


Or “going to burn with fever.” According to BDAG 814 s.v. πίμπρημι , either meaning (“swell up” or “burn with fever”) is possible for Acts 28:6 .


The participle προσδοκώντων ( prosdokwntwn ) has been taken temporally.


The participle θεωρούντων ( qewrountwn ) has been taken temporally.


Grk “happening.” The participle γινόμενον ( ginomenon ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style.


Grk “changing their minds.” The participle μεταβαλόμενοι ( metabalomenoi ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style.


BDAG 798 s.v. περί 2.a. γ states, “of nearby places… τὰ περὶ τὸν τὸπον the region around the place Ac 28:7 .” The presence of ἐκεῖνον ( ekeinon ) results in the translation “that place.”


That is, the chief Roman official. Several inscriptions have confirmed the use of πρῶτος ( prwtos ) as an administrative title used on the island of Malta for the highest Roman official. See further BDAG 852 s.v. Πόπλιος .


Grk “It happened that the father.” The introductory phrase ἐγένετο ( egeneto , “it happened that”), common in Luke (69 times) and Acts (54 times), is redundant in contemporary English and has not been translated.


Grk “to whom Paul going in.” Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, the relative pronoun (“whom”) was replaced by a personal pronoun (“him”) and a new sentence begun here in the translation. The participle εἰσελθών ( eiselqwn ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style.


The participle ἐπιθείς ( epiqeis ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style.


BDAG 142 s.v. ἀσθένεια 1 states, “ ἔχειν ἀ . be ill Ac 28:9 .”


Or “they also honored us greatly”; Grk “they also honored us with many honors” (an idiom).


BDAG 62 s.v. ἀνάγω 4, “as a nautical t.t. ( ἀ . τὴν ναῦν put a ship to sea), mid. or pass. ἀνάγεσθαι to begin to go by boat, put out to sea .” In this case the simpler English “sail” is more appropriate. The English participle “preparing” has also been supplied, since the provisioning of the ship would take place some time before the actual departure.


BDAG 384 s.v. ἐπιτίθημι 1.b has “ give τινί τι someth. to someone … ἀναγομένοις τὰ πρὸς τὰς χρείας when we sailed they gave us what we needed Ac 28:10 .”


BDAG 62 s.v. ἀνάγω 4, “as a nautical t.t. ( ἀ . τὴν ναῦν put a ship to sea), mid. or pass. ἀνάγεσθαι to begin to go by boat, put out to sea .”


Or “the ‘Twin Gods’”; Grk “the Dioscuri ” (a joint name for the pagan deities Castor and Pollux). sn That had the ‘ Heavenly Twins ’ as its figurehead. The twin brothers Castor and Pollux, known collectively as the Dioscuri or ‘Heavenly Twins,’ were the twin sons of Zeus and Leda according to Greek mythology. The Alexandrian ship on which Paul and his companions sailed from Malta had a carved emblem or figurehead of these figures, and they would have been the patron deities of the vessel. Castor and Pollux were the “gods of navigation.” To see their stars was considered a good omen (Epictetus, Discourses 2.18.29; Lucian of Samosata, The Ship 9).


Or “as its emblem.”


Grk “And putting in.” The participle καταχθέντες ( katacqente" ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style. On the meaning of the participle, BDAG 516 s.v. κατάγω states, “Hence the pass., in act. sense, of ships and seafarers put in εἴς τι at a harbor … εἰς Συρακούσας Ac 28:12 .” Because of the difference between Greek style, which often begins sentences or clauses with “and,” and English style, which generally does not, καί ( kai ) has not been translated here.


A 066 1739 Ï lat sy. Although περιελόντες is minimally attested, it is found in the better witnesses. As well, it is a more difficult reading, for its meaning as a nautical term is uncertain, requiring something like “ τὰς ἀγκύρας be supplied = ‘we weighed anchor’” (BDAG 799 s.v. περιαιρέω 1). It thus best explains the rise of the other readings.


Grk “after one day, a south wind springing up, on the second day.” The genitive absolute construction with the participle ἐπιγενομένου ( epigenomenou ) has been translated as a clause with a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style.


Grk “where.” Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, the relative pronoun (“where”) has been replaced with the demonstrative pronoun (“there”) and a new sentence begun here in the translation.


Grk “finding.” The participle εὑρόντες ( Jeurontes ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style.


For location see JP4-A1 .


Grk “whom, when he saw [them], Paul.” Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, the relative pronoun (“whom”) was replaced by the personal pronoun (“them”) and a new sentence begun here in the translation.


Or “to stay.” sn Allowed to live by himself. Paul continued to have a generous prison arrangement (cf. Acts 27:3 ).


Grk “It happened that after three days.” The introductory phrase ἐγένετο ( egeneto , “it happened that”), common in Luke (69 times) and Acts (54 times), is redundant in contemporary English and has not been translated.


Grk “he”; the referent (Paul) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


L&N 33.309 has “‘after three days, he called the local Jewish leaders together’ Ac 28:17 .”


Grk “Men brothers,” but this is both awkward and unnecessary in English.


The participle ποιήσας ( poihsas ) has been translated as a concessive adverbial participle.


Or “forefathers”; Grk “fathers.” sn I had done nothing against our people or the customs of our ancestors. Once again Paul claimed to be faithful to the Jewish people and to the God of Israel.


For location see Map5-B1 ; Map6-F3 ; Map7-E2 ; Map8-F2 ; Map10-B3 ; JP1-F4 ; JP2-F4 ; JP3-F4 ; JP4-F4 .


Grk “into the hands of the Romans,” but this is redundant when παρεδόθην ( paredoqhn ) has been translated “handed over.”


Grk “who when.” Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, the relative pronoun (“who”) has been replaced by the personal pronoun (“they”) and a new sentence begun at this point in the translation.


Or “had questioned me”; or “had examined me.” BDAG 66 s.v. ἀνακρίνω 2 states, “to conduct a judicial hearing, hear a case, question.”


Grk “no basis for death,” but in this context a sentence of death is clearly indicated.


That is, objected to my release.


Or “to the emperor” (“Caesar” is a title for the Roman emperor).


BDAG 533 s.v. κατηγορέω 1 states, “nearly always as legal t.t.: bring charges in court.” L&N 33.427 states for κατηγορέω , “to bring serious charges or accusations against someone, with the possible connotation of a legal or court context – ‘to accuse, to bring charges.’”


Or “my own nation.”


Grk “they said to him.”


Or “arrived”; Grk “come” (“from there” is implied). Grk “coming.” The participle παραγενόμενος ( paragenomeno" ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style.


Grk “regarding this sect it is known to us.” The passive construction “it is known to us” has been converted to an active one to simplify the translation.


Grk “that everywhere it is spoken against.” To simplify the translation the passive construction “it is spoken against” has been converted to an active one with the subject “people” supplied.


On the term translated “speak against,” see BDAG 89 s.v. ἀντιλέγω 1.


Grk “Having set.” The participle ταξάμενοι ( taxamenoi ) has been translated as a finite verb due to requirements of contemporary English style.


Grk “Having set a day with him”; the words “to meet” are not in the Greek text, but are implied.


Or “came to him in his rented quarters.”


BDAG 848 s.v. πολύς 1.b. β . ב states, “ (even) more πλείονες in even greater numbers Ac 28:23 .”


The word “things” is not in the Greek text, but has been supplied. Direct objects were often omitted in Greek when clear from the context, but must be supplied for the modern English reader.


Grk “to whom he explained.” Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, the relative pronoun (“whom”) has been replaced by the pronoun (“them”) and a new sentence begun at this point in the translation.


BDAG 233 s.v. διαμαρτύρομαι 1 has “to make a solemn declaration about the truth of someth. testify of, bear witness to (orig. under oath)… God ’ s kingdom 28:23.”


Or “persuade.”


Or “persuaded.”


Grk “by the things spoken.”


The imperfect verb ἀπελύοντο ( apeluonto ) has been translated as an ingressive imperfect.


Or “forefathers”; Grk “fathers.”


Grk “you will hear with hearing” (an idiom).


Or “seeing”; Grk “you will look by looking” (an idiom).


Or “insensitive.” sn The heart of this people has become dull. The charge from Isaiah is like Stephen’s against the Jews of Jerusalem ( Acts 7:51-53 ). They were a hard-hearted and disobedient people.


Grk “they hear heavily with their ears” (an idiom for slow comprehension).


Grk “Therefore let it be known to you.”


Or “of God.”


Grk “they also.”


Grk “He”; the referent (Paul) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


Or “stayed.”


Or perhaps, “two whole years at his own expense.” BDAG 654 s.v. μίσθωμα states, “the customary act. mng. ‘contract price, rent’…is not found in our lit. (Ac) and the pass. what is rented, a rented house is a mng. not found outside it (even Ammonius Gramm. [100 ad] p. 93 Valck. knows nothing of it. Hence the transl. at his own expense [NRSV] merits attention) ἐν ἰδίῳ μισθώματι in his own rented lodgings Ac 28:30 (for the idea cp. Jos., Ant. 18, 235).”


Or “and received.”


Or “Messiah”; both “Christ” (Greek) and “Messiah” (Hebrew and Aramaic) mean “one who has been anointed.”


Or “openness.”


Grk “Paul.” The word “from” is not in the Greek text, but has been supplied to indicate the sender of the letter.


Traditionally, “servant.” Though δοῦλος ( doulos ) is normally translated “servant,” the word does not bear the connotation of a free individual serving another. BDAG notes that “‘servant’ for ‘slave’ is largely confined to Biblical transl. and early American times…in normal usage at the present time the two words are carefully distinguished” (BDAG 260 s.v.). The most accurate translation is “bondservant” (sometimes found in the ASV for δοῦλος ), in that it often indicates one who sells himself into slavery to another. But as this is archaic, few today understand its force. sn Undoubtedly the background for the concept of being the Lord’s “slave” or “servant” is to be found in the Old Testament scriptures. For someone who was Jewish this concept did not connote drudgery, but honor and privilege. It was used of national Israel at times ( Isa 43:10 ), but was especially associated with famous OT personalities, including such great men as Moses ( Josh 14:7 ), David ( Ps 89:3 ; cf. 2 Sam 7:5, 8 ) and Elijah ( 2 Kgs 10:10 ); all these men were “servants (or slaves) of the Lord.”


B 81 pc ). The meaning is not affected in either case, but the reading “Christ Jesus” is preferred as slightly more difficult and thus more likely the original (a scribe who found it would be prone to change it to the more common expression). At the same time, Paul is fond of the order “Christ Jesus,” especially in certain letters such as Romans, Galatians, and Philippians. As well, the later Pauline letters almost uniformly use this order in the salutations. A decision is difficult, but “Christ Jesus” is slightly preferred.


Grk “a called apostle.”


The genitive in the phrase εὐαγγέλιον θεοῦ ( euangelion qeou , “the gospel of God”) could be translated as (1) a subjective genitive (“the gospel which God brings”) or (2) an objective genitive (“the gospel about God”). Either is grammatically possible. This is possibly an instance of a plenary genitive (see ExSyn 119-21; M. Zerwick, Biblical Greek , §§36-39). If so, an interplay between the two concepts is intended: The gospel which God brings is in fact the gospel about himself. However, in view of God’s action in v. 2 concerning this gospel, a subjective genitive notion (“the gospel which God brings”) is slightly preferred.


Grk “the gospel of God, which he promised.” Because of the length and complexity of this sentence in Greek, it was divided into shorter English sentences in keeping with contemporary English style. To indicate the referent of the relative pronoun (“which”), the word “gospel” was repeated at the beginning of v. 2 .


Grk “born of the seed” (an idiom).


Grk “according to the flesh,” indicating Jesus’ earthly life, a reference to its weakness. This phrase implies that Jesus was more than human; otherwise it would have been sufficient to say that he was a descendant of David, cf. L. Morris, Romans , 44.


Grk “spirit of holiness.” Some interpreters take the phrase to refer to Christ’s own inner spirit, which was characterized by holiness.


Or “by his resurrection.” Most interpreters see this as a reference to Jesus’ own resurrection, although some take it to refer to the general resurrection at the end of the age, of which Jesus’ resurrection is the first installment (cf. 1 Cor 15:23 ).


Grk “through whom.”


Some interpreters understand the phrase “grace and apostleship” as a hendiadys, translating “grace [i.e., gift] of apostleship.” The pronoun “our” is supplied in the translation to clarify the sense of the statement.


Grk “and apostleship for obedience.”


The phrase ὑπακοὴν πίστεως has been variously understood as (1) an objective genitive (a reference to the Christian faith, “obedience to [the] faith”); (2) a subjective genitive (“the obedience faith produces [or requires]”); (3) an attributive genitive (“believing obedience”); or (4) as a genitive of apposition (“obedience, [namely] faith”) in which “faith” further defines “obedience.” These options are discussed by C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans (ICC), 1:66. Others take the phrase as deliberately ambiguous; see D. B. Garlington, “The Obedience of Faith in the Letter to the Romans: Part I: The Meaning of ὑπακοὴ πίστεως ( Rom 1:5; 16:26 ),” WTJ 52 (1990): 201-24.


Grk “among whom you also are called.” Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, a new sentence was started here in the translation. The NIV, with its translation “And you also are among those who are called,” takes the phrase ἐν οἳς ἐστε to refer to the following clause rather than the preceding, so that the addressees of the letter (“you also”) are not connected with “all the Gentiles” mentioned at the end of v. 5 . It is more likely, however, that the relative pronoun οἳς has τοῖς ἔθνεσιν as its antecedent, which would indicate that the church at Rome was predominantly Gentile.


Grk “called of Jesus Christ.”


For location see JP4-A1 .


Although the first part of v. 7 is not a complete English sentence, it maintains the “From…to” pattern used in all the Pauline letters to indicate the sender and the recipients. Here, however, there are several intervening verses (vv. 2-6 ), which makes the first half of v. 7 appear as an isolated sentence fragment.


Grk “Grace to you and peace.”


Grk “First.” Paul never mentions a second point, so J. B. Phillips translated “I must begin by telling you….”


Grk “whom I serve in my spirit in the gospel.”


Grk “as.”


Grk “remember you, always asking.”


Grk “succeed in coming to you in the will of God.”


Grk “that is, to be comforted together with you through the faith in one another.”


Grk “brothers,” but the Greek word may be used for “brothers and sisters” or “fellow Christians” as here (cf. BDAG 18 s.v. ἀδελφός 1, where considerable nonbiblical evidence for the plural ἀδελφοί [ adelfoi ] meaning “brothers and sisters” is cited).


Grk “in order that I might have some fruit also among you just as also among the rest of the Gentiles.”


Or “obligated.”


Or “willing, ready”; Grk “so my eagerness [is] to preach…” The word πρόθυμος ( proqumo" , “eager, willing”) is used only elsewhere in the NT in Matt 26:41 = Mark 14:38 : “the spirit indeed is willing ( πρόθυμος ), but the flesh is weak.”


The nature of the “righteousness” described here and the force of the genitive θεοῦ (“of God”) which follows have been much debated. (1) Some (e.g. C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans [ICC], 1:98) understand “righteousness” to refer to the righteous status given to believers as a result of God’s justifying activity, and see the genitive “of God” as a genitive of source (= “from God”). (2) Others see the “righteousness” as God’s act or declaration that makes righteous (i.e., justifies) those who turn to him in faith, taking the genitive “of God” as a subjective genitive (see E. Käsemann, Romans , 25-30). (3) Still others see the “righteousness of God” mentioned here as the attribute of God himself, understanding the genitive “of God” as a possessive genitive (“God’s righteousness”).


Grk “in it”; the referent (the gospel) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


Or “by faith for faith,” or “by faith to faith.” There are many interpretations of the phrase ἐκ πίστεως εἰς πίστιν ( ek pistew" ei" pistin ). It may have the idea that this righteousness is obtained by faith ( ἐκ πίστεως ) because it was designed for faith ( εἰς πίστιν ). For a summary see J. Murray, Romans (NICNT), 1:363-74.


The genitive ἀνθρώπων could be taken as an attributed genitive, in which case the phase should be translated “against all ungodly and unrighteous people” (cf. “the truth of God” in v. 25 which is also probably an attributed genitive). C. E. B. Cranfield takes the section 1:18-32 to refer to all people (not just Gentiles), while 2:1-3:20 points out that the Jew is no exception ( Romans [ICC], 1:104-6; 1:137-38).


“Their” is implied in the Greek, but is supplied because of English style.


Or “by means of unrighteousness.” Grk “in (by) unrighteousness.”


Grk “is manifest to/in them.”


Grk “they”; the referent (people) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


Grk “heart.”


The participle φάσκοντες ( faskonte" ) is used concessively here.


Grk “exchanged the glory of the incorruptible God in likeness of an image of corruptible man.” Here there is a wordplay on the Greek terms ἄφθαρτος ( afqarto" , “immortal, imperishable, incorruptible”) and φθαρτός ( fqarto" , “mortal, corruptible, subject to decay”).


The genitive articular infinitive τοῦ ἀτιμάζεσθαι ( tou atimazesqai , “to dishonor”) has been taken as (1) an infinitive of purpose; (2) an infinitive of result; or (3) an epexegetical (i.e., explanatory) infinitive, expanding the previous clause.


Grk “among them.”


Grk “who.” The relative pronoun was converted to a personal pronoun and, because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, a new sentence was started here in the translation.


Grk “the lie.”


Or “creature, created things.”


Grk “for their females exchanged the natural function for that which is contrary to nature.” The term χρῆσις ( crhsi" ) has the force of “sexual relations” here (L&N 23.65).


Grk “likewise so also the males abandoning the natural function of the female.”


Grk “burned with intense desire” (L&N 25.16).


Grk “another, men committing…and receiving,” continuing the description of their deeds. Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, a new sentence was started here in the translation.


Grk “and just as they did not approve to have God in knowledge.”


Grk “the things that are improper.”


Grk “being filled” or “having been filled,” referring to those described in v. 28 . Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, a new sentence was started here in the translation.


Grk “malice, full of,” continuing the description. Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, a new sentence was started here in the translation.


Or “promise-breakers.”


Grk “who, knowing…, not only do them but also approve…” Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, a new sentence was started here in the translation.


Grk “are worthy of death.”


Some interpreters (e.g., C. K. Barrett, Romans [HNTC], 43) connect the inferential Διό ( dio , “therefore”) with 1:32 a, treating 1:32 b as a parenthetical comment by Paul.


That is, “you have nothing to say in your own defense” (so translated by TCNT).


Grk “O man.”


Grk “Therefore, you are without excuse, O man, everyone [of you] who judges.”


Grk “in/by (that) which.”


Or “based on truth.”


Grk “do you think this,” referring to the clause in v. 3 b.


Grk “O man, the one who judges.”


Grk “and do them.” The other words are supplied to bring out the contrast implied in this clause.


Grk “being unaware.”


Grk “hardness.” Concerning this imagery, see Jer 4:4 ; Ezek 3:7 ; 1 En. 16:3.


Grk “in the day of wrath and revelation of the righteous judgment of God.”


Or “will render,” “will recompense.” In this context Paul is setting up a hypothetical situation, not stating that salvation is by works.


This contrast is clearer and stronger in Greek than can be easily expressed in English.


Grk “those who [are] from selfish ambition.”


Grk “are persuaded by, obey.”


No verb is expressed in this verse, but the verb “to be” is implied by the Greek construction. Literally “suffering and distress on everyone…”


Grk “every soul of man.”


Grk “but even,” to emphasize the contrast. The second word has been omitted since it is somewhat redundant in English idiom.


The Greek sentence expresses this contrast more succinctly than is possible in English. Grk “For not the hearers of the law are righteous before God, but the doers of the law will be declared righteous.”


Some (e.g. C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans [ICC], 1:135-37) take the phrase φύσει ( fusei , “by nature”) to go with the preceding “do not have the law,” thus: “the Gentiles who do not have the law by nature,” that is, by virtue of not being born Jewish.


Grk “do by nature the things of the law.”


Grk “who.” The relative pronoun was converted to a personal pronoun and, because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, a new sentence was started here in the translation.


Grk “show the work of the law [to be] written,” with the words in brackets implied by the Greek construction.


Or “excuse.”


Grk “their conscience bearing witness and between the thoughts accusing or also defending one another.”


The form of the Greek word is either present or future, but it is best to translate in future because of the context of future judgment.


Grk “of people.”


Grk “boast in God.” This may be an allusion to Jer 9:24 .


Grk “the will.”


Grk “because of being instructed out of the law.”


This verb is parallel to the verbs in vv. 17-18 a, so it shares the conditional meaning even though the word “if” is not repeated.


The structure of vv. 21-24 is difficult. Some take these verses as the apodosis of the conditional clauses (protases) in vv. 17-20 ; others see vv. 17-20 as an instance of anacoluthon (a broken off or incomplete construction).


Or “detest.”


Grk “if you should be a transgressor of the law.”


The Greek word φυλάσσω ( fulassw , traditionally translated “keep”) in this context connotes preservation of and devotion to an object as well as obedience.


Grk “the uncircumcision by nature.” The word “man” is supplied here to make clear that male circumcision (or uncircumcision) is in view.


Grk “through,” but here the preposition seems to mean “(along) with,” “though provided with,” as BDAG 224 s.v. διά A.3.c indicates.


Grk “letter.”


Some have taken the phrase ἐν πνεύματι ( en pneumati , “by/in [the] S/spirit”) not as a reference to the Holy Spirit, but referring to circumcision as “spiritual and not literal” (RSV).


Grk “whose.” The relative pronoun has been replaced by the phrase “this person’s” and, because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, a new sentence was started in the translation.


Grk “much in every way.”


has the γάρ in brackets, indicating doubt as to its authenticity. Grk “first indeed that.”


Grk “they were.”


The referent of λόγια ( logia , “oracles”) has been variously understood: (1) BDAG 598 s.v. λόγιον takes the term to refer here to “God’s promises to the Jews”; (2) some have taken this to refer more narrowly to the national promises of messianic salvation given to Israel (so S. L. Johnson, Jr., “Studies in Romans: Part VII: The Jews and the Oracles of God,” BSac 130 [1973]: 245); (3) perhaps the most widespread interpretation sees the term as referring to the entire OT generally.


Grk “every man”; but ἄνθρωπος ( anqrwpo" ) is used in a generic sense here to stress humanity rather than masculinity.


Grk “Let God be true, and every man a liar.” The words “proven” and “shown up” are supplied in the translation to clarify the meaning.


Grk “might be justified,” a subjunctive verb, but in this type of clause it carries the same sense as the future indicative verb in the latter part. “Will” is more idiomatic in contemporary English.


Or “prevail when you judge.” A quotation from Ps 51:4 .


Or “shows clearly.”


Grk “That God is not unjust to inflict wrath, is he?”


Grk “abounded unto.”


Grk “(as we are slandered and some affirm that we say…).”


Grk “whose.” Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, this relative clause was rendered as a new sentence in the translation.


Grk “their throat is an opened grave.”


Grk “whose mouth is.” Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, a new sentence was started here in the translation.


Grk “in,” “in connection with.”


Grk “because by the works of the law no flesh is justified before him.” Some recent scholars have understood the phrase ἒργα νόμου ( erga nomou , “works of the law”) to refer not to obedience to the Mosaic law generally, but specifically to portions of the law that pertain to things like circumcision and dietary laws which set the Jewish people apart from the other nations (e.g., J. D. G. Dunn, Romans [WBC], 1:155). Other interpreters, like C. E. B. Cranfield (“‘The Works of the Law’ in the Epistle to the Romans,” JSNT 43 [1991]: 89-101) reject this narrow interpretation for a number of reasons, among which the most important are: (1) The second half of v. 20 , “for through the law comes the knowledge of sin,” is hard to explain if the phrase “works of the law” is understood in a restricted sense; (2) the plural phrase “works of the law” would have to be understood in a different sense from the singular phrase “the work of the law” in 2:15 ; (3) similar phrases involving the law in Romans ( 2:13, 14; 2:25, 26, 27; 7:25; 8:4; and 13:8 ) which are naturally related to the phrase “works of the law” cannot be taken to refer to circumcision (in fact, in 2:25 circumcision is explicitly contrasted with keeping the law). Those interpreters who reject the “narrow” interpretation of “works of the law” understand the phrase to refer to obedience to the Mosaic law in general.


Grk “is.”


Νυνὶ δέ ( Nuni de , “But now”) could be understood as either (1) logical or (2) temporal in force, but most recent interpreters take it as temporal, referring to a new phase in salvation history.


Grk “being witnessed by the law and the prophets,” a remark which is virtually parenthetical to Paul’s argument.


Or “faith in Christ.” A decision is difficult here. Though traditionally translated “faith in Jesus Christ,” an increasing number of NT scholars are arguing that πίστις Χριστοῦ ( pisti" Cristou ) and similar phrases in Paul (here and in v. 26 ; Gal 2:16, 20; 3:22 ; Eph 3:12 ; Phil 3:9 ) involve a subjective genitive and mean “Christ’s faith” or “Christ’s faithfulness” (cf., e.g., G. Howard, “The ‘Faith of Christ’,” ExpTim 85 [1974]: 212-15; R. B. Hays, The Faith of Jesus Christ [SBLDS]; Morna D. Hooker, “ Πίστις Χριστοῦ ,” NTS 35 [1989]: 321-42). Noteworthy among the arguments for the subjective genitive view is that when πίστις takes a personal genitive it is almost never an objective genitive (cf. Matt 9:2, 22, 29 ; Mark 2:5; 5:34; 10:52 ; Luke 5:20; 7:50; 8:25, 48; 17:19; 18:42; 22:32 ; Rom 1:8; 12; 3:3; 4:5, 12, 16 ; 1 Cor 2:5; 15:14, 17 ; 2 Cor 10:15 ; Phil 2:17 ; Col 1:4; 2:5 ; 1 Thess 1:8; 3:2, 5, 10 ; 2 Thess 1:3 ; Titus 1:1 ; Phlm 6 ; 1 Pet 1:9, 21 ; 2 Pet 1:5 ). On the other hand, the objective genitive view has its adherents: A. Hultgren, “The Pistis Christou Formulations in Paul,” NovT 22 (1980): 248-63; J. D. G. Dunn, “Once More, ΠΙΣΤΙΣ ΧΡΙΣΤΟΥ ,” SBL Seminar Papers , 1991, 730-44. Most commentaries on Romans and Galatians usually side with the objective view. sn ExSyn 116, which notes that the grammar is not decisive, nevertheless suggests that “the faith/faithfulness of Christ is not a denial of faith in Christ as a Pauline concept (for the idea is expressed in many of the same contexts, only with the verb πιστεύω rather than the noun), but implies that the object of faith is a worthy object, for he himself is faithful.” Though Paul elsewhere teaches justification by faith, this presupposes that the object of our faith is reliable and worthy of such faith.


Or “declared righteous.” Grk “being justified,” as a continuation of the preceding clause. Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, a new sentence was started here in the translation.


Or “purposed, intended.”


Grk “whom God publicly displayed.” Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, a new sentence was started here in the translation.


Grk “in his blood.” The prepositional phrase ἐν τῷ αὐτοῦ αἵματι ( ejn tw aujtou {aimati ) is difficult to interpret. It is traditionally understood to refer to the atoning sacrifice Jesus made when he shed his blood on the cross, and as a modifier of ἱλαστήριον ( Jilasthrion ). This interpretation fits if ἱλαστήριον is taken to refer to a sacrifice. But if ἱλαστήριον is taken to refer to the place where atonement is made as this translation has done (see note on the phrase “mercy seat”), this interpretation of ἐν τῷ αὐτοῦ αἵματι creates a violent mixed metaphor. Within a few words Paul would switch from referring to Jesus as the place where atonement was made to referring to Jesus as the atoning sacrifice itself. A viable option which resolves this problem is to see ἐν τῷ αὐτοῦ αἵματι as modifying the verb προέθετο ( proeqeto ). If it modifies the verb, it would explain the time or place in which God publicly displayed Jesus as the mercy seat; the reference to blood would be a metaphorical way of speaking of Jesus’ death. This is supported by the placement of ἐν τῷ αὐτοῦ αἵματι in the Greek text (it follows the noun, separated from it by another prepositional phrase) and by stylistic parallels with Rom 1:4 . This is the interpretation the translation has followed, although it is recognized that many interpreters favor different options and translations. The prepositional phrase has been moved forward in the sentence to emphasize its connection with the verb, and the referent of the metaphorical language has been specified in the translation. For a detailed discussion of this interpretation, see D. P. Bailey, “Jesus As the Mercy Seat: The Semantics and Theology of Paul’s Use of Hilasterion in Romans 3:25 ” (Ph.D. diss., University of Cambridge, 1999).


The word ἱλαστήριον ( Jilasthrion ) may carry the general sense “place of satisfaction,” referring to the place where God’s wrath toward sin is satisfied. More likely, though, it refers specifically to the “mercy seat,” i.e., the covering of the ark where the blood was sprinkled in the OT ritual on the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur). This term is used only one other time in the NT: Heb 9:5 , where it is rendered “mercy seat.” There it describes the altar in the most holy place (holy of holies). Thus Paul is saying that God displayed Jesus as the “mercy seat,” the place where propitiation was accomplished. See N. S. L. Fryer, “The Meaning and Translation of Hilasterion in Romans 3:25 ,” EvQ 59 (1987): 99-116, who concludes the term is a neuter accusative substantive best translated “mercy seat” or “propitiatory covering,” and D. P. Bailey, “Jesus As the Mercy Seat: The Semantics and Theology of Paul’s Use of Hilasterion in Romans 3:25 ” (Ph.D. diss., University of Cambridge, 1999), who argues that this is a direct reference to the mercy seat which covered the ark of the covenant.


The prepositional phrase διὰ πίστεως ( dia pistew" ) here modifies the noun ἱλαστήριον ( Jilasthrion ). As such it forms a complete noun phrase and could be written as “mercy-seat-accessible-through-faith” to emphasize the singular idea. See Rom 1:4 for a similar construction. The word “accessible” is not in the Greek text but has been supplied to clarify the idea expressed by the prepositional phrase (cf. NRSV: “effective through faith”).


Grk “for a demonstration,” giving the purpose of God’s action in v. 25 a. Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, a new sentence was started here in the translation.


Grk “because of the passing over of sins previously committed in the forbearance of God.”


The words “This was” have been repeated from the previous verse to clarify that this is a continuation of that thought. Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, a new sentence was started here in the translation.


Grk “toward a demonstration,” repeating and expanding the purpose of God’s action in v. 25 a.


Or “righteous.”


Or “of the one who has faith in Jesus.” See note on “faithfulness of Jesus Christ” in v. 22 for the rationale behind the translation “Jesus’ faithfulness.”


Although a number of interpreters understand the “boasting” here to refer to Jewish boasting, others (e.g. C. E. B. Cranfield, “‘The Works of the Law’ in the Epistle to the Romans,” JSNT 43 [1991]: 96) take the phrase to refer to all human boasting before God.


Grk “By what sort of law?”


Here ἄνθρωπον ( anqrwpon ) is used in an indefinite and general sense (BDAG 81 s.v. ἄνθρωπος 4.a. γ ).


See the note on the phrase “works of the law” in Rom 3:20 .


Grk “but if indeed God is one.”


Grk “render inoperative.”


Grk “but” (Greek ἀλλά , alla ).


Or “according to natural descent” (BDAG 916 s.v. σάρξ 4).


Grk “has found?”


Or “was justified.”


The term λογίζομαι ( logizomai ) occurs 11 times in this chapter (vv. 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 22, 23, 24 ). In secular usage it could (a) refer to deliberations of some sort, or (b) in commercial dealings (as virtually a technical term) to “reckoning” or “charging up a debt.” See H. W. Heidland, TDNT 4:284, 290-92.


Grk “not according to grace but according to obligation.”


Or “who justifies the ungodly.”


Or “Happy.”


The word for “man” or “individual” here is ἀνήρ ( anhr ), which often means “male” or “man (as opposed to woman).” However, as BDAG 79 s.v. 2 says, here it is “equivalent to τὶς someone, a person .”


The verb translated “count” here is λογίζομαι ( logizomai ). It occurs eight times in Rom 4:1-12 , including here, each time with the sense of “place on someone’s account.” By itself the word is neutral, but in particular contexts it can take on a positive or negative connotation. The other occurrences of the verb have been translated using a form of the English verb “credit” because they refer to a positive event: the application of righteousness to the individual believer. The use here in v. 8 is negative: the application of sin. A form of the verb “credit” was not used here because of the positive connotations associated with that English word, but it is important to recognize that the same concept is used here as in the other occurrences.


Or “happiness.”


Grk “upon.”


Grk “of the faith, the one [existing] in uncircumcision.”


Grk “that he might be,” giving the purpose of v. 11 a.


Grk “through uncircumcision.”


Grk “the father of circumcision.”


Grk “the ‘in-uncircumcision faith’ of our father Abraham.”


Grk “rendered inoperative.”


Or “violation.”


Grk “that it might be according to grace.”


Grk “those who are of the faith of Abraham.”


Verses 16-17 comprise one sentence in Greek, but this has been divided into two sentences due to English requirements. sn A quotation from Gen 17:5 . The quotation forms a parenthesis in Paul’s argument.


The words “He is our father” are not in the Greek text but are supplied to show that they resume Paul’s argument from 16b. (It is also possible to supply “Abraham had faith” here [so REB], taking the relative clause [“who is the father of us all”] as part of the parenthesis, and making the connection back to “the faith of Abraham,” but such an option is not as likely [C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans [ICC], 1:243].)


“The God” is not in the Greek text but is supplied for clarity.


Or “calls into existence the things that do not exist.” The translation of ὡς ὄντα ( Jw" onta ) allows for two different interpretations. If it has the force of result, then creatio ex nihilo is in view and the variant rendering is to be accepted (so C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans [ICC], 1:244). A problem with this view is the scarcity of ὡς plus participle to indicate result (though for the telic idea with ὡς plus participle, cf. Rom 15:15 ; 1 Thess 2:4 ). If it has a comparative force, then the translation given in the text is to be accepted: “this interpretation fits the immediate context better than a reference to God’s creative power, for it explains the assurance with which God can speak of the ‘many nations’ that will be descended from Abraham” (D. Moo, Romans [NICNT], 282; so also W. Sanday and A. C. Headlam, Romans [ICC], 113). Further, this view is in line with a Pauline idiom, viz., verb followed by ὡς plus participle (of the same verb or, in certain contexts, its antonym) to compare present reality with what is not a present reality (cf. 1 Cor 4:7; 5:3; 7:29, 30 (three times), 31; Col 2:20 [similarly, 2 Cor 6:9, 10 ]).


Grk “he”; the referent (Abraham) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


Grk “who against hope believed,” referring to Abraham. The relative pronoun was converted to a personal pronoun and, because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, a new sentence was started here in the translation.


Grk “according to that which had been spoken.”


Most mss (D F G Ψ 33 1881 Ï it) read “he did not consider” by including the negative particle ( οὐ , ou ), but others ( א A B C 6 81 365 1506 1739 pc co) lack οὐ . The reading which includes the negative particle probably represents a scribal attempt to exalt the faith of Abraham by making it appear that his faith was so strong that he did not even consider the physical facts. But “here Paul does not wish to imply that faith means closing one’s eyes to reality, but that Abraham was so strong in faith as to be undaunted by every consideration” ( TCGNT 451). Both on external and internal grounds, the reading without the negative particle is preferred.


includes the word in brackets, indicating doubt as to its authenticity.


Grk “And he.” Because of the difference between Greek style, which often begins sentences or clauses with “and,” and English style, which generally does not, δέ ( de ) has not been translated here.


Grk “and being.” Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, a new sentence was started here in the translation.


Grk “he”; the referent (God) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


Grk “him”; the referent (Abraham) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


A quotation from Gen 15:6 .


Grk “his”; the referent (Abraham) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


Grk “who,” referring to Jesus. The relative pronoun was converted to a personal pronoun and, because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, a new sentence was started here in the translation.


Or “handed over.” sn The verb translated given over ( παραδίδωμι , paradidwmi ) is also used in Rom 1:24, 26, 28 to describe God giving people over to sin. But it is also used frequently in the gospels to describe Jesus being handed over (or delivered up, betrayed) by sinful men for crucifixion (cf., e.g., Matt 26:21; 27:4 ; Mark 8:31; 9:31; 10:33; 15:15 ; Luke 20:20; 22:24; 24:7 ). It is probable that Paul has both ideas in mind: Jesus was handed over by sinners, but even this betrayal was directed by the Father for our sake ( because of our transgressions ).


Grk “because of.” However, in light of the unsatisfactory sense that a causal nuance would here suggest, it has been argued that the second διά ( dia ) is prospective rather than retrospective (D. Moo, Romans [NICNT], 288-89). The difficulty of this interpretation is the structural balance that both διά phrases provide (“given over because of our transgressions…raised because of our justification”). However the poetic structure of this verse strengthens the likelihood that the clauses each have a different force.


as pm ). Thus, although the external evidence is strongly in favor of the subjunctive, the indicative is represented well enough that its ancestry could easily go back to the original. Turning to the internal evidence, the indicative gains much ground. (1) The variant may have been produced via an error of hearing (since omicron and omega were pronounced alike in ancient Greek). This, of course, does not indicate which reading was original – just that an error of hearing may have produced one of them. In light of the indecisiveness of the transcriptional evidence, intrinsic evidence could play a much larger role. This is indeed the case here. (2) The indicative fits well with the overall argument of the book to this point. Up until now, Paul has been establishing the “indicatives of the faith.” There is only one imperative (used rhetorically) and only one hortatory subjunctive (and this in a quotation within a diatribe) up till this point, while from ch. on there are sixty-one imperatives and seven hortatory subjunctives. Clearly, an exhortation would be out of place in ch. . (3) Paul presupposes that the audience has peace with God (via reconciliation) in 5:10 . This seems to assume the indicative in v. 1 . (4) As C. E. B. Cranfield notes, “it would surely be strange for Paul, in such a carefully argued writing as this, to exhort his readers to enjoy or to guard a peace which he has not yet explicitly shown to be possessed by them” ( Romans [ICC], 1:257). (5) The notion that εἰρήνην ἔχωμεν ( eirhnhn ecwmen ) can even naturally mean “enjoy peace” is problematic ( ExSyn 464), yet those who embrace the subjunctive have to give the verb some such force. Thus, although the external evidence is stronger in support of the subjunctive, the internal evidence points to the indicative. Although a decision is difficult, ἔχομεν appears to be the authentic reading.


Or “exult, boast.”


Here δέ ( de ) has not been translated because of differences between Greek and English style.


The phrase ἡ ἀγάπη τοῦ θεοῦ ( Jh agaph tou qeou , “the love of God”) could be interpreted as either an objective genitive (“our love for God”), subjective genitive (“God’s love for us”), or both (M. Zerwick’s “general” genitive [ Biblical Greek , §§36-39]; D. B. Wallace’s “plenary” genitive [ ExSyn 119-21]). The immediate context, which discusses what God has done for believers, favors a subjective genitive, but the fact that this love is poured out within the hearts of believers implies that it may be the source for believers’ love for God; consequently an objective genitive cannot be ruled out. It is possible that both these ideas are meant in the text and that this is a plenary genitive: “The love that comes from God and that produces our love for God has been poured out within our hearts through the Holy Spirit who was given to us” ( ExSyn 121).


Grk “having now been declared righteous.” The participle δικαιωθέντες ( dikaiwqente" ) has been translated as a causal adverbial participle.


Or, according to BDF §219.3, “at the price of his blood.”


Grk “the wrath,” referring to God’s wrath as v. 10 shows.


Here ἀνθρώπους ( anqrwpou" ) has been translated as a generic (“people”) since both men and women are clearly intended in this context.


The translation of the phrase ἐφ᾿ ᾧ ( ef Jw ) has been heavily debated. For a discussion of all the possibilities, see C. E. B. Cranfield, “On Some of the Problems in the Interpretation of Romans 5.12 ,” SJT 22 (1969): 324-41. Only a few of the major options can be mentioned here: (1) the phrase can be taken as a relative clause in which the pronoun refers to Adam, “death spread to all people in whom [Adam] all sinned.” (2) The phrase can be taken with consecutive (resultative) force, meaning “death spread to all people with the result that all sinned.” (3) Others take the phrase as causal in force: “death spread to all people because all sinned.”


Grk “for before the law.”


Or “sin is not reckoned.”


Or “pattern.”


Or “disobeyed”; Grk “in the likeness of Adam’s transgression.”


Grk “but not as the transgression, so also [is] the gracious gift.”


Grk “and not as through the one who sinned [is] the gift.”


The word “transgression” is not in the Greek text at this point, but has been supplied for clarity.


Greek emphasizes the contrast between these two clauses more than can be easily expressed in English.


Or “falls, trespasses,” the same word used in vv. 15, 17, 18, 20 .


There is a double connective here that cannot be easily preserved in English: “consequently therefore,” emphasizing the conclusion of what he has been arguing.


Grk “[it is] unto condemnation for all people.”


There are no verbs in the Greek text of v. 18 , forcing translators to supply phrases like “ came through one transgression,” “ resulted from one transgression,” etc.


Grk “righteousness of life.”


Grk “the many.”


Grk “slipped in.”


Or “trespass.”


Grk “may walk in newness of life,” in which ζωῆς ( zwhs ) functions as an attributed genitive (see ExSyn 89-90, where this verse is given as a prime example).


Grk “we will certainly also of his resurrection.”


Grk “knowing this, that.” Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, a new sentence was started here in the translation.


Grk “may be rendered ineffective, inoperative,” or possibly “may be destroyed.” The term καταργέω ( katargew ) has various nuances. In Rom 7:2 the wife whose husband has died is freed from the law (i.e., the law of marriage no longer has any power over her, in spite of what she may feel). A similar point seems to be made here (note v. 7 ).


Grk “knowing.” Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, a new sentence was started here in the translation.


The present tense here has been translated as a futuristic present (see ExSyn 536, where this verse is listed as an example).


includes the infinitive in brackets, indicating doubt as to its authenticity.


Or “weapons, tools.”


Or “wickedness, injustice.”


Grk “to whom you present yourselves.”


Grk “as slaves for obedience.” See the note on the word “slave” in 1:1 .


Grk “either of sin unto death, or obedience unto righteousness.”


Grk “you were slaves of sin but you obeyed.”


Or “type, form.”


Or “because of your natural limitations” (NRSV). sn Verse 19 forms something of a parenthetical comment in Paul’s argument.


Grk “fruit.”


Grk “have,” in a tense emphasizing their customary condition in the past.


The two aorist participles translated “freed” and “enslaved” are causal in force; their full force is something like “But now, since you have become freed from sin and since you have become enslaved to God….”


A figurative extension of ὀψώνιον ( oywnion ), which refers to a soldier’s pay or wages. Here it refers to the end result of an activity, seen as something one receives back in return. In this case the activity is sin, and the translation “payoff” captures this thought. See also L&N 89.42.


Grk “brothers.” See note on the phrase “brothers and sisters” in 1:13 .


Grk “the,” with the article used as a possessive pronoun ( ExSyn 215).


Grk “husband.” sn Paul’s example of the married woman and the law of the marriage illustrates that death frees a person from obligation to the law. Thus, in spiritual terms, a person who has died to what controlled us (v. 6 ) has been released from the law to serve God in the new life produced by the Spirit.


There is a double connective here that cannot be easily preserved in English: “consequently therefore,” emphasizing the conclusion of what he has been arguing.


Grk “that we might bear fruit to God.”


That is, before we were in Christ.


Or “sinful passions.”


Grk “our members”; the words “of our body” have been supplied to clarify the meaning.


Grk “having died.” The participle ἀποθανόντες ( apoqanonte" ) has been translated as a causal adverbial participle.


Grk “in the newness of the Spirit and not in the oldness of the letter.”


Grk “I would not have known covetousness.”


Or “covetousness.”


Here καί ( kai ) has been translated as “So” to indicate the result of the statement in the previous verse. Greek style often begins sentences or clauses with “and,” but English style generally does not.


Grk “and there was found in/for me the commandment which was for life – this was for death.”


Or “and through it killed me.”


Grk “under sin.”


Grk “but what I hate, this I do.”


Grk “I agree with the law that it is good.”


Grk “For to wish is present in/with me, but not to do it.”


Ψ 33 81 104 365 1506 pc ), but it should probably not be considered original. The ms support for the omission of δέ is both excellent and widespread ( א * A B D 1739 1881 Ï lat sy), and its addition can be explained as an insertion to smooth out the transition between v. 24 and 25 .


Greek emphasizes the contrast between these two clauses more than can be easily expressed in English.


The words “I serve” have been repeated here for clarity.


Ï ) added ἀλλὰ κατὰ πνεῦμα ( alla kata pneuma , “but [who do walk] according to the Spirit”). Both the external evidence and the internal evidence are compelling for the shortest reading. The scribes were evidently motivated to add such qualifications (interpolated from v. 4 ) to insulate Paul’s gospel from charges that it was characterized too much by grace. The KJV follows the longest reading found in Ï .


Grk “for the law of the Spirit of life.”


1881 Ï lat sa). The second person singular pronoun σε ( se ) is superior because of external support ( א B {F which reads σαι } G 1506* 1739*) and internal support (it is the harder reading since ch. was narrated in the first person). At the same time, it could have arisen via dittography from the final syllable of the verb preceding it ( ἠλευθέρωσεν , hleuqerwsen ; “has set free”). But for this to happen in such early and diverse witnesses is unlikely, especially as it depends on various scribes repeatedly overlooking either the nu or the nu -bar at the end of the verb.


Grk “in that.”


Grk “think on” or “are intent on” (twice in this verse). What is in view here is not primarily preoccupation, however, but worldview. Translations like “set their mind on” could be misunderstood by the typical English reader to refer exclusively to preoccupation.


Or “mindset,” “way of thinking” (twice in this verse and once in v. 7 ). The Greek term φρόνημα does not refer to one’s mind, but to one’s outlook or mindset.


Or “are not controlled by the flesh but by the Spirit.”


Or “life-giving.” Grk “the Spirit is life.”


F G Ψ 33 Ï sa) and internal evidence (scribes were much more likely to add the name “Jesus” if it were lacking than to remove it if it were already present in the text, especially to harmonize with the earlier mention of Jesus in the verse).


81 104 1505 1506 al , and is slightly preferred.


There is a double connective here that cannot be easily preserved in English: “consequently therefore,” emphasizing the conclusion of what he has been arguing.


Grk “brothers.” See note on the phrase “brothers and sisters” in 1:13 .


Grk “are about to, are certainly going to.”


Grk “For as many as are being led by the Spirit of God, these are.”


Grk “slavery again to fear.”


The Greek term υἱοθεσία ( Juioqesia ) was originally a legal technical term for adoption as a son with full rights of inheritance. BDAG 1024 s.v. notes, “a legal t.t. of ‘adoption’ of children, in our lit., i.e. in Paul, only in a transferred sense of a transcendent filial relationship between God and humans (with the legal aspect, not gender specificity, as major semantic component).”


Or “in that.”


Or possibly “with.” ExSyn 160-61, however, notes the following: “At issue, grammatically, is whether the Spirit testifies alongside of our spirit (dat. of association), or whether he testifies to our spirit (indirect object) that we are God’s children. If the former, the one receiving this testimony is unstated (is it God? or believers?). If the latter, the believer receives the testimony and hence is assured of salvation via the inner witness of the Spirit. The first view has the advantage of a σύν - ( sun -) prefixed verb, which might be expected to take an accompanying dat. of association (and is supported by NEB, JB, etc.). But there are three reasons why πνεύματι ( pneumati ) should not be taken as association: (1) Grammatically, a dat. with a σύν - prefixed verb does not necessarily indicate association. This, of course, does not preclude such here, but this fact at least opens up the alternatives in this text. (2) Lexically, though συμμαρτυρέω ( summarturew ) originally bore an associative idea, it developed in the direction of merely intensifying μαρτυρέω ( marturew ). This is surely the case in the only other NT text with a dat. ( Rom 9:1 ). (3) Contextually, a dat. of association does not seem to support Paul’s argument: ‘What standing has our spirit in this matter? Of itself it surely has no right at all to testify to our being sons of God’ [C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans [ICC], 1:403]. In sum, Rom 8:16 seems to be secure as a text in which the believer’s assurance of salvation is based on the inner witness of the Spirit. The implications of this for one’s soteriology are profound: The objective data, as helpful as they are, cannot by themselves provide assurance of salvation; the believer also needs (and receives) an existential, ongoing encounter with God’s Spirit in order to gain that familial comfort.”


Grk “on the one hand, heirs of God; on the other hand, fellow heirs with Christ.” Some prefer to render v. 17 as follows: “And if children, then heirs – that is, heirs of God. Also fellow heirs with Christ if indeed we suffer with him so we may also be glorified with him.” Such a translation suggests two distinct inheritances, one coming to all of God’s children, the other coming only to those who suffer with Christ. The difficulty of this view, however, is that it ignores the correlative conjunctions μέν … δέ ( men … de , “on the one hand…on the other hand”): The construction strongly suggests that the inheritances cannot be separated since both explain “then heirs.” For this reason, the preferred translation puts this explanation in parentheses.


Grk “are not worthy [to be compared].”


Grk “because of the one”; the referent (God) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


Or “who have the Spirit as firstfruits.” The genitive πνεύματος ( pneumatos ) can be understood here as possessive (“the firstfruits belonging to the Spirit”) although it is much more likely that this is a genitive of apposition (“the firstfruits, namely, the Spirit”); cf. TEV, NLT.


See the note on “adoption” in v. 15 .


Grk “body.”


Or “perseverance.”


Or “for we do not know what we ought to pray for.”


Grk “he,” or “it”; the referent (the Spirit) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


A B 81 sa; the shorter reading is found in א C D F G Ψ 33 1739 1881 Ï latt sy bo. Although the inclusion is supported by a significant early papyrus, the alliance of significant Alexandrian and Western witnesses favors the shorter reading. As well, the longer reading is evidently motivated by a need for clarification. Since ὁ θεός is textually suspect, it is better to read the text without it. This leaves two good translational options: either “he works all things together for good” or “all things work together for good.” In the first instance the subject is embedded in the verb and “God” is clearly implied (as in v. 29 ). In the second instance, πάντα ( panta ) becomes the subject of an intransitive verb. In either case, “What is expressed is a truly biblical confidence in the sovereignty of God” (C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans [ICC], 1:427).


Grk “he”; the referent (God’s Son) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


Grk “[he] who.” The relative clause continues the question of v. 31 in a way that is awkward in English. The force of v. 32 is thus: “who indeed did not spare his own Son, but gave him up for us all – How will he not also with him give us all things?”


has the word in brackets, indicating doubt as to its authenticity. Grk “who also.”


Here “sword” is a metonymy that includes both threats of violence and acts of violence, even including death (although death is not necessarily the only thing in view here).