The MT reads בֵּן אַחִים יַפְרִיא ( ben ’ akhim yafri ’, “he flourishes [as] a son of brothers”), which is awkward syntactically and enigmatic contextually. The Greek, Syriac, and Latin versions reflect a Vorlage of בֵּין אַחִים יַפְרִיד ( ben ’ akhim yafrid , “he causes division between brothers”). The BHS editors suggest the MT confused the common term אָח (’ akh , “brother”) for the rarer term אָחוּ (’ akhu , “marsh plant, reed plant” [ Job 8:11 ] and “reed bed” [ Gen 41:2, 18 ; HALOT 31 s.v. אָחוּ ]). This is an Egyptian loanword which is also attested in Ugaritic and Old Aramaic. The original text probably read either כְּאָחוּ מַפְרִיא ( kÿ ’ akhu mafri ’, “he flourishes like a reed plant”; comparative כְּ , kaf , + noun אָחוּ , “reed” followed by Hiphil participle masculine singular from פָּרַה , parah , “to flourish”) or בֵּין אָחוּ מַפְרִיא ( ben ’ akhu mafri ’, “he flourishes among the reeds”; preposition בֵּין , ben , “between” followed by masculine singular noun אָחוּ “reed” followed by Hiphil participle masculine singular from פָּרַה ). The confusion over אָחוּ (“reed plant”) probably led to secondary scribal errors: (1) faulty word-division of אָחוּ מַפְרִיא to אָחוּם יַפְרִיא , and (2) secondary orthographic confusion of י ( yod ) and ו ( vav ) between אָחוּם and resultant אָחִים . For discussion, see D. Barthélemy, ed., Preliminary and Interim Report on the Hebrew Old Testament Text Project , 5:268-69. Several English versions retain the MT: “even though he thrives among his brothers” (NIV), “Though he be fruitful among his brethren” (KJV), “No matter how much you prosper more than the other tribes” (CEV), “Ephraim was the most fruitful of all his brothers (NLT). Others adopt one of the two emendations: (1) “though he flourishes among the reeds” (NEB, NASB, NJPS), and (2) “even though he flourishes like weeds” (TEV), “though he may flourish as the reed plant” (RSV). tn Or “among the reed plants” (cf. NEB, NASB, NJPS).


The MT וְיֵבוֹשׁ ( vÿyevosh , “will be ashamed”; vav + Qal imperfect 3rd person masculine singular from בּוֹשׁ , bosh , “to be ashamed”) does not fit the context. The LXX, Syriac, and Vulgate reflect a Vorlage of וְיוֹבִישׁ ( vÿyovish , “will dry up”; vav + Hiphil imperfect 3rd person masculine singular from יָבַשׁ , yavash , “to be dry”; HALOT 384 s.v. יבשׁ 1). This fits well with the parallel וְיֶחֱרַב ( vÿyekherav , “will become dry”; vav + Qal imperfect 3rd person masculine singular from חָרַב , kharav , “to be dry”). See Isa 42:15; 44:27 ; Jer 51:36 . The variant read by the ancient versions is followed by almost all modern English versions (as well as KJV, ASV).


The term “wind” is not repeated in the Hebrew text at this point but is implied; it is supplied in the translation for clarity.


Or “must bear its guilt” (NIV similar); NLT “must bear the consequences of their guilt”; CEV “will be punished.”


Heb “his.” This is a collective singular, as recognized by almost all English versions.


Heb “For you have stumbled in your iniquity”; NASB, NRSV “because of your iniquity.”


Heb “Take words with you and return to the Lord ” (so NASB, NIV, NRSV).


The word order כָּל־תִּשָּׂא עָוֹן ( kol-tisa ’ ’ avon ) is syntactically awkward. The BHS editors suggest rearranging the word order: תִּשָּׂא כָּל־עוֹן (“Forgive all [our] iniquity!”). However, Gesenius suggests that כָּל (“all”) does not function as the construct in the genitive phrase כָּל־עוֹן (“all [our] iniquity”); it functions adverbially modifying the verb תִּשָּׂא (“Completely forgive!”; see GKC 415 §128. e ).


Heb “and accept [our] speech.” The word טוֹב ( tov ) is often confused with the common homonymic root I טוֹב ( tov , “good”; BDB 373 s.v. I טוֹב ). However, this is probably IV טוֹב ( tov , “word, speech”; HALOT 372 s.v. IV טוֹב ), a hapax legomenon that is related to the verb טבב (“to speak”; HALOT 367 s.v. טבב ) and the noun טִבָּה ( tibbah , “rumor”; HALOT 367 s.v. טִבָּה ). The term טוֹב (“word; speech”) refers to the repentant prayer mentioned in 14:1-3 . Most translations relate it to I טוֹב and treat it as (1) accusative direct object: “accept that which is good” (RSV, NJPS), “Accept our good sacrifices” (CEV), or (2) adverbial accusative of manner: “receive [us] graciously” (KJV, NASB, NIV). Note TEV, however, which follows the suggestion made here: “accept our prayer.”


The MT reads פָרִים ( farim , “bulls”), but the LXX reflects פְּרִי ( pÿri , “fruit”), a reading followed by NASB, NIV, NRSV: “that we may offer the fruit of [our] lips [as sacrifices to you].” Although the Greek expression in Heb 13:15 ( καρπὸν χειλέων , karpon xeilewn , “the fruit of lips”) reflects this LXX phrase, the MT makes good sense as it stands; NT usage of the LXX should not be considered decisive in resolving OT textual problems. The noun פָרִים ( parim , “bulls”) functions as an adverbial accusative of state.


Heb “For the orphan is shown compassion by you.” The present translation takes “orphan” as a figurative reference to Israel, which is specified in the translation for clarity.


The noun נְדָבָה ( nÿdavah , “voluntariness; free-will offering”) is an adverbial accusative of manner: “freely, voluntarily” (BDB 621 s.v. נְדָבָה 1). Cf. CEV “without limit”; TEV “with all my heart”; NLT “my love will know no bounds.”


Heb “like Lebanon” (so KJV; also in the following verse). The phrase “a cedar of” does not appear in the Hebrew text; it is supplied in translation for clarity. Cf. TEV “the trees of Lebanon”; NRSV “the forests of Lebanon.”


Hosea uses the similar-sounding terms יָשֻׁבוּ יֹשְׁבֵי ( yashuvu yoshve , “the dwellers will return”) to create a wordplay between the roots שׁוּב ( shuv , “to return”) and יָשַׁב ( yashav , “to dwell; to reside”).


Heb “they will cause the grain to live” or “they will revive the grain.” Some English versions treat this as a comparison: “they shall revive as the corn” (KJV); “will flourish like the grain” (NIV).


The Hebrew expression מַה־לִּי עוֹד ( mah-li ’ od ) is a formula of repudiation/emphatic denial that God has anything in common with idols: “I want to have nothing to do with […] any more!” Cf., e.g., Judg 11:12 ; 2 Sam 16:10; 19:23 ; 1 Kgs 17:18 ; 2 Kgs 3:13 ; 2 Chr 35:21 ; Jer 2:18 ; Ps 50:16 ; BDB 553 s.v. מָה 1.d.(c).


The term “like” does not appear in the Hebrew text, but is supplied in the translation for clarity, as in the majority of English versions (including KJV).


Cf. KJV “a green fir tree”; NIV, NCV “a green pine tree”; NRSV “an evergreen cypress.”


Heb “your fruit is found in me”; NRSV “your faithfulness comes from me.”


The shortened form of the prefix-conjugation verb וְיָבֵן ( vÿyaven ) indicates that it is a jussive rather than an imperfect. When a jussive comes from a superior to an inferior, it may connote exhortation and instruction or advice and counsel. For the functions of the jussive, see IBHS 568-70 §34.3.


Heb “the word of the Lord .”


Heb “give ear.”


Heb “days.” The term “days” functions here as a synecdoche for one’s lifespan.


Heb “days.”


Heb “fathers.”


Heb “sons.” This word occurs several times in this verse.


Heb “eaten.” This verb is repeated three times in v. 4 to emphasize the total devastation of the crops by this locust invasion.


The four Hebrew terms used in this verse are of uncertain meaning. English translations show a great deal of variation in dealing with these: (1) For ָגּזָם ( gazam ) KJV has “palmerworm,” NEB “locust,” NAB “cutter”, NASB “gnawing locust,” NIV “locust swarm,” NKJV “chewing locust,” NRSV, NLT “cutting locust(s),” NIrV “giant locusts”; (2) for אַרְבֶּה (’ arbeh ) KJV has “locust,” NEB “swarm,” NAB “locust swarm,” NASB, NKJV, NRSV, NLT “swarming locust(s),” NIV “great locusts,” NIrV “common locusts”; (3) for יֶלֶק ( yeleq ) KJV has “cankerworm,” NEB “hopper,” NAB “grasshopper,” NASB “creeping locust,” NIV, NIrV “young locusts,” NKJV “crawling locust,” NRSV, NLT “hopping locust(s)”; (4) for חָסִיל ( khasil ) KJV has “caterpillar,” NEB “grub,” NAB “devourer,” NASB, NLT “stripping locust(s),” NIV, NIrV “other locusts,” NKJV “consuming locust,” NRSV “destroying locust.” It is debated whether the Hebrew terms describe different species of locusts or similar insects or different developmental stages of the same species, or are virtual synonyms. While the last seems more likely, given the uncertainty over their exact meaning, the present translation has transliterated the Hebrew terms in combination with the word “locust.” sn Four different words for “locust” are used in this verse. Whether these words represent different life-stages of the locusts, or whether virtual synonyms are being used to underscore the severity of damage caused by the relentless waves of locust invasion, is not entirely certain. The latter seems more likely. Many interpreters have understood the locust plagues described here to be symbolic of invading armies that will devastate the land, but the symbolism could also work the other way, with real plagues of locusts described in the following verses as an invading army.


Heb “over the sweet wine, because it.” Cf. KJV, NIV, TEV, NLT “new wine.”


Heb “cut off” (so KJV, ASV, NASB, NRSV); NAB “will be withheld.”


Heb “your mouth.” This is a synecdoche of part (the mouth) for whole (the person).


Heb “has come up against.”


Heb “my.”


Heb “it.” Throughout vv. 6-7 the Hebrew uses singular forms to describe the locust swarm, but the translation uses plural forms because several details of the text make more sense in English as if they are describing the appearance and effects of individual locusts.


Both “vines” and “fig trees” are singular in the Hebrew text, but are regarded as collective singulars.


Or “a young woman” (TEV, CEV). See the note on the phrase “husband-to-be” in the next line.


Heb “over the death of.” The term “lamenting” does not appear in the Hebrew, but is supplied in the translation for smoothness.


Heb “house.” So also in vv. 13, 14, 16 .


Heb “grain offering and drink offering are cut off from the house of the Lord ,”


Heb “the field has been utterly destroyed.” The term “field,” a collective singular for “fields,” is a metonymy for crops produced by the fields.


Joel uses intentionally alliterative language in the phrases שֻׁדַּד שָׂדֶה ( shuddad sadeh , “the field is destroyed”) and אֲבְלָה אֲדָמָה (’ avlah ’ adamah , “the ground is in mourning”).


Heb “embarrassed”; or “be ashamed.”


This Hebrew word וְתַפּוּחַ ( vÿtappuakh ) probably refers to the apple tree (so most English versions), but other suggestions that scholars have offered include the apricot, citron, or quince.


These words are not in the Hebrew text but are supplied in the translation for clarity.


Heb “the sons of man.”


Heb “put on.” There is no object present in the Hebrew text, but many translations assume “sackcloth” to be the understood object of the verb “put on.” Its absence in the Hebrew text of v. 13 is probably due to metrical considerations. The meter here + 3, and that has probably influenced the prophet’s choice of words.


Heb “for grain offering and drink offering are withheld from the house of your God.”


Heb “consecrate a fast” (so NASB).


Heb “Alas for the day!”


There is a wordplay in Hebrew here with the word used for “destruction” ( שׁוֹד , shod ) and the term used for God ( שַׁדַּי , shadday ). The exact meaning of “Shaddai” in the OT is somewhat uncertain, although the ancient versions and many modern English versions tend to translate it as “Almighty” (e.g., Greek παντοκράτωρ [ pantokratwr ], Latin omnipotens ). Here it might be rendered “Destroyer,” with the thought being that “destruction will come from the Divine Destroyer,” which should not be misunderstood as a reference to the destroying angel. The name “Shaddai” (outside Genesis and without the element “El” [“God”]) is normally used when God is viewed as the sovereign king who blesses/protects or curses/brings judgment. The name appears in the introduction to two of Balaam’s oracles ( Num 24:4, 16 ) of blessing upon Israel. Naomi employs the name when accusing the Lord of treating her bitterly by taking the lives of her husband and sons ( Ruth 1:20-21 ). In Ps 68:14 , Isa 13:6 , and the present passage, Shaddai judges his enemies through warfare, while Ps 91:1 depicts him as the protector of his people. In Ezek 1:24 and 10:5 the sound of the cherubs’ wings is compared to Shaddai’s powerful voice. The reference may be to the mighty divine warrior’s battle cry which accompanies his angry judgment.


Heb “Has not the food been cut off right before our eyes?” This rhetorical question expects an affirmative answer; the question has been translated as an affirmation for the sake of clarity and emphasis.


Heb “joy and gladness from the house of our God?” Verse 16 b is a continuation of the rhetorical question begun in v. 16 a, but has been translated as an affirmative statement to make the meaning clear. The words “There is no longer any” are not in the Hebrew text, but have been supplied in the translation for clarity.


Heb “seed.” The phrase “the grains of” does not appear in the Hebrew, but has been supplied in the translation for the sake of clarity and smoothness.


) reads “the heifers decay in [their] s[talls].” LXX reads “the heifers leap in their stalls.” These two lines of v. 17 comprise only four words in the Hebrew; three of the four are found only here in the OT. The translation and meaning are rather uncertain. A number of English versions render the word translated “shovels” as “clods,” referring to lumps of soil (e.g., KJV, NAB, NASB, NIV, NRSV).


Heb “how the cattle groan!”


Heb “the herds of cattle are confused.” The verb בּוּךְ ( bukh , “be confused”) sometimes refers to wandering aimlessly in confusion (cf. Exod 14:3 ).


The phrase “for help” does not appear in the Hebrew, but is supplied in the translation for the sake of clarity.


Heb “consumed.” This entire line is restated at the end of v. 20 .


Heb “the pastures of the wilderness.”


Heb “beasts of the field.”


Heb “long for you.” Animals of course do not have religious sensibilities as such; they do not in any literal sense long for Yahweh. Rather, the language here is figurative (metonymy of cause for effect). The animals long for food and water (so BDB 788 s.v. עָרַג ), the ultimate source of which is Yahweh.


Heb “sources of water.”


Heb “consumed.”


The word translated “trumpet” here (so most English versions) is the Hebrew שׁוֹפָר ( shofar ). The shophar was a wind instrument made from a cow or ram’s horn and used as a military instrument for calling people to attention in the face of danger or as a religious instrument for calling people to occasions of communal celebration.


Or “for.”


The phrase “It will be” does not appear in the Hebrew, but is supplied in the translation for the sake of smoothness and style.


Heb “darkness and gloom.” These two terms probably form a hendiadys here. This picture recalls the imagery of the supernatural darkness in Egypt during the judgments of the exodus ( Exod 10:22 ). These terms are also frequently used as figures (metonymy of association) for calamity and divine judgment ( Isa 8:22; 59:9 ; Jer 23:12 ; Zeph 1:15 ). Darkness is often a figure (metonymy of association) for death, dread, distress and judgment (BDB 365 s.v. חשֶׁךְ 3).


Heb “a day of cloud and darkness.”


The present translation here follows the proposed reading שְׁחֹר ( shÿkhor , “blackness”) rather than the MT שַׁחַר ( shakhar , “morning”). The change affects only the vocalization; the Hebrew consonants remain unchanged. Here the context calls for a word describing darkness. The idea of morning or dawn speaks instead of approaching light, which does not seem to fit here. The other words in the verse (e.g., “darkness,” “gloominess,” “cloud,” “heavy overcast”) all emphasize the negative aspects of the matter at hand and lead the reader to expect a word like “blackness” rather than “dawn.” However, NIrV paraphrases the MT nicely: “A huge army of locusts is coming. They will spread across the mountains like the sun when it rises.”


Heb “A huge and powerful people”; KJV, ASV “a great people and a strong.” Many interpreters understand to describe an invasion of human armies, either in past history (e.g., the Babylonian invasion of Palestine in the sixth century b.c. ) or in an eschatological setting. More probably, however, the language of this chapter referring to “people” and “armies” is a hypocatastic description of the locusts of chapter one. Cf. TEV “The great army of locusts advances like darkness.”


Heb “it will not be repeated for years of generation and generation.”


Heb “a fire devours before it.”


Heb “like the garden of Eden, the land is before them.”


Heb “and surely a survivor there is not for it.” The antecedent of the pronoun “it” is apparently עַם (’ am , “people”) of v. 2 , which seems to be a figurative way of referring to the locusts. K&D 26:191-92 thought that the antecedent of this pronoun was “land,” but the masculine gender of the pronoun does not support this.


Heb “Like the appearance of horses [is] its appearance.” sn The fact that a locust’s head resembles a miniature replica of a horse’s head has often been noticed. For example, the German word for locust ( Heupferd , “hay horse”) and the Italian word as well ( cavaletta , “little horse”) are based on this similarity in appearance.


Heb “like the sound of.” sn The repetition of the word of comparison (“like”) in vv. 4-7 should not go unnoticed. The author is comparing the locust invasion to familiar aspects of human invasion. If the preposition has its normal force here, it is similarity and not identity that is intended. In other words, locusts are being likened to human armies, but human armies are not actually present. On the other hand, this Hebrew preposition is also on occasion used to indicate exactitude, a function described by grammarians as kaph veritatis .


Heb “jostling” or “leaping.” There is question whether this pictures chariots rumbling over the mountains (e.g., 2 Sam 6:14,16 ; 1 Chr 15:29 ; Nah 3:2 ) or the locusts flying – or “leaping” – over the mountains (e.g., Job 21:11 ); see BDB 955 s.v. רָקַד .


Heb “sound.”


The phrase “the noise of” does not appear in the Hebrew, but is implied by the parallelism, so it has been supplied in the translation for the sake of clarity.


Heb “people.”


Heb “being arrayed of battle.”


Or “nations.”


Heb “before it.”


Heb “all faces gather beauty”; or “all faces gather a glow.” The Hebrew word פָּארוּר ( pa ’ rur ) is found in the OT only here and in Nah 2:11 . Its meaning is very uncertain. Some scholars associate it with a root that signifies “glowing”; hence “all faces gather a glow of dread.” Others associate the word with פָּרוּר ( parur , “pot”); hence “all faces gather blackness.” Still others take the root to signify “beauty”; hence “all faces gather in their beauty” in the sense of growing pale due to fear. This is the view assumed here.


Heb “run.”


Heb “men of battle.”


The translation reads יְעַבְּתוּן ( yÿ ’ abbÿtun ) for MT יְעַבְּטוּן ( yÿ ’ abbÿtun ). The verb found in MT ( עָבַט , ’ avat ) means “take or give a pledge” (cf. Deut 15:6, 8; 24:10 ) and does not fit the context. Some scholars have proposed various emendations: (1) יְעָוְּתוּן ( yÿ ’ avvÿtun , “they make crooked”); (2) יָטּוּן ( yattun , “they turn aside”); (3) יָעַוּוּן ( ya ’ avvun , “they err”); and (4) יְעָבְּתוּן (adopted in the present translation) from the root I עָבַת (’ avat , “to twist, pervert”) or II עָבַת (’ avat , “to change, abandon”). KBL adopt the latter option, but the only biblical evidence for this is the problematic reference in Joel 2:7 . Another option is to view it as a variant of the root חבט ( khavat , “turn aside from”), a meaning attested for the Arabic cognate. The difference in spelling would be due to the interchange of the guttural letters khet ( ח ) and ayin ( ע ). This may lay behind LXX rendering ἐκκλίνωσιν ( ekklinwsin ; cf. Syriac Peshitta nstwn and Vg declinabunt ). See S. F. Whitley, “ ‘bt in Joel 2, 7 ,” Bib 65 (1984): 101-2.


“each one does not crowd his brother.”


Heb “each warrior walks in his own course.”


Heb “they fall upon.” This line has been interpreted in two different ways: (1) although they fall upon the sword, they shall not be wounded (KJV), or (2) when they “burst through” the city’s defenses, they will not break ranks (RSV, NASB, NIV, NIrV).


Heb “missile” or “javelin.” This term appears to function as a synecdoche for the city’s defenses as a whole (cf. NASB, NIV, TEV). Some scholars instead understand the reference to be an aqueduct by which the locusts (or armies) entered the city.


Heb “dart about in.”


Or “they run upon its wall.”


Heb “trembles.”


Heb “gather their brightness.”


Heb “the Lord gives his voice.”


Heb “before his army.”


Heb “military encampment.”


Heb “very large.”


Heb “he makes his word powerful.”


Or “powerful.” Heb “great.”


) has “bear.”


Heb “and great of loyal love.”


Heb “and he relents from calamity.”


Heb “turn” or “turn back.”


Heb “leave a blessing behind him.”


The phrase “for you to offer” does not appear in the Hebrew, but is supplied in the translation for the sake of clarity.


See the note on this term in 2:1 .


Heb “between the vestibule and the altar.” The vestibule was located at the entrance of the temple and the altar was located at the other end of the building. So “between the vestibule and the altar” is a merism referring to the entire structure. The priestly lament permeates the entire house of worship.


For the MT reading לִמְשָׁל ( limshol , an infinitive, “to rule”), one should instead read לְמָשָׁל ( lÿmashal , a noun, “to a byword”). While the consonantal Hebrew text permits either, the context suggests that the concern here is more one of not wanting to appear abandoned by God to ongoing economic depression rather than one of concern over potential political subjection of Israel (cf. v. 19 ). The possibility that the form in the MT is an infinitive construct of the denominative verb II מָשַׁל ( mashal , “to utter a proverb”) does not seem likely because of the following preposition (Hebrew בְּ [ bÿ ], rather than עַל [’ al ]).


Heb “Why will they say?”


The time-frame entertained by the verbs of v.18 constitutes a crux interpretum in this chapter. The Hebrew verb forms used here are preterites with vav consecutive and are most naturally understood as describing a past situation. However, some modern English versions render these verbs as futures (e.g., NIV, NASV), apparently concluding that the context requires a future reference. According to Joüon 2:363 §112.h, n.1 Ibn Ezra explained the verbs of Joel 2:18 as an extension of the so-called prophetic perfect; as such, a future fulfillment was described with a past tense as a rhetorical device lending certainty to the fulfillment. But this lacks adequate precedent and is very unlikely from a syntactical standpoint. It seems better to take the verbs in the normal past sense of the preterite. This would require a vantage point for the prophet at some time after the people had responded favorably to the Lord’s call for repentance and after the Lord had shown compassion and forgiveness toward his people, but before the full realization of God’s promises to restore productivity to the land. In other words, it appears from the verbs of vv. 18-19 that at the time of Joel’s writing this book the events of successive waves of locust invasion and conditions of drought had almost run their course and the people had now begun to turn to the Lord.


Heb “answered and said.”


Heb “Look! I am sending grain to you.” The participle used in the Hebrew text seems to suggest imminent action.


) inserts “and you will eat” before “and you will be fully satisfied” (the reading of the MT, LXX).


Heb “his face to the eastern sea.” In this context the eastern sea is probably the Dead Sea.


Heb “and his rear to the western sea.” The western sea refers to the Mediterranean Sea.


The Hebrew text does not have “the Lord .” Two interpretations are possible. This clause may refer to the enemy described in the immediately preceding verses, in which case it would have a negative sense: “he has acted in a high-handed manner.” Or it may refer to the Lord , in which case it would have a positive sense: “the Lord has acted in a marvelous manner.” This is clearly the sense of the same expression in v. 21 , where in fact “the Lord ” appears as the subject of the verb. It seems best to understand the clause the same way in both verses.


Heb “beasts of the field.”


Heb “their strength.” The trees and vines will produce a maximum harvest, in contrast to the failed agricultural conditions previously described.


Heb “sons of Zion.”


Heb “be glad in the Lord your God.”


Normally the Hebrew word הַמּוֹרֶה ( hammoreh ) means “the teacher,” but here and in Ps 84:7 it refers to “early rains.” Elsewhere the word for “early rains” is יוֹרֶה ( yoreh ). The phrase here הַמּוֹרֶה לִצְדָקָה ( hammoreh litsdaqah ) is similar to the expression “teacher of righteousness” (Heb., מוֹרֶה הַצֶּדֶק , moreh hatsedeq ) found in the Dead Sea Scrolls referring to a particular charismatic leader, although the Qumran community seems not to have invoked this text in support of that notion.


Heb “caused to come down.”


Heb “I will restore to you the years.” sn The plural years suggests that the plague to which Joel refers was not limited to a single season. Apparently the locusts were a major problem over several successive years. One season of drought and locust invasion would have been bad enough. Several such years would have been devastating.


The term “your crops” does not appear in the Hebrew, but has been supplied in the translation for the sake of clarity and smoothness.


Heb “you will surely eat and be satisfied.”


Heb “Now it will be after this.”


Heb “all flesh.” As a term for humanity, “flesh” suggests the weakness and fragility of human beings as opposed to God who is “spirit.” The word “all” refers not to all human beings without exception (cf. NAB, NASB “all mankind”; NLT “all people”), but to all classes of human beings without distinction (cf. NCV).


Heb “your old men will dream dreams.”


Or “in the heavens.” The Hebrew term שָׁמַיִם ( shamayim ) may be translated “heavens” or “sky” depending on the context.


Heb “to blood,” but no doubt this is intended to indicate by metonymy the color of blood rather than the substance itself. The blood red color suggests a visual impression here – something that could be caused by fires, volcanic dust, sandstorms, or other atmospheric phenomena.


While a number of English versions render this as “saved” (e.g., NIV, NRSV, NLT), this can suggest a “spiritual” or “theological” salvation rather than the physical deliverance from the cataclysmic events of the day of the Lord described in the context.


For location see Map5-B1 ; Map6-F3 ; Map7-E2 ; Map8-F2 ; Map10-B3 ; JP1-F4 ; JP2-F4 ; JP3-F4 ; JP4-F4 .


Heb “deliverance”; or “escape.” The abstract noun “deliverance” or “escape” probably functions here as an example of antimeria, referring to those who experience deliverance or escape with their lives: “escaped remnant” or “surviving remnant” ( Gen 32:8; 45:7 ; Judg 21:17 ; 2 Kgs 19:30, 31 ; Isa 4:2; 10:20; 15:9; 37:31, 32 ; Ezek 14:22 ; Obad 1:17 ; Ezra 9:8, 13-15 ; Neh 1:2 ; 1 Chr 4:43 ; 2 Chr 30:6 ).


Heb “and among the remnant.”


The participle used in the Hebrew text seems to indicate action in the imminent future.


The MT and LXX read “in those days,” while MurXII reads “in that day.”


The Kethib reads אָשִׁיב (’ ashiv , “return the captivity [captives]), while the Qere is אָשׁוּב (’ ashuv , “restore the fortunes”). Many modern English versions follow the Qere reading. Either reading seems to fit the context. Joel refers to an exile of the inhabitants of Judah and Jerusalem in 3:2-6 and their return from exile in 3:7 . On the other hand, 2:25-26 describes the reversal of judgment and restoration of the covenant blessings. However, the former seems to be the concern of the immediate context.


Heb “I will execute judgment.”


Heb “concerning my people and my inheritance Israel.”


Heb “gave.”


Heb “What [are] you [doing] to me, O Tyre and Sidon?”


Or “districts.”


Heb “quickly, speedily, I will return your recompense on your head.” This is an idiom for retributive justice and an equitable reversal of situation.


Or perhaps, “temples.”


Heb “border.”


Heb “I will return your recompense on your head.”


Heb “into the hand of.”


Heb “the sons of Judah.”


Heb “draw near and go up.”


This Hebrew verb is found only here in the OT; its meaning is uncertain. Some scholars prefer to read here עוּרוּ (’ uru , “arouse”) or חוּשׁוּ ( khushu , “hasten”).


The present translation follows the reading of the imperative הִקָּבְצוּ ( hiqqavÿtsu ) rather than the perfect with vav ( ו ) consecutive וְנִקְבָּצוּ ( vÿniqbbatsu ) of the MT.


Some commentators prefer to delete the line “Bring down, O Lord , your warriors,” understanding it to be a later addition. But this is unnecessary. Contrary to what some have suggested, a prayer for the Lord ’s intervention is not out of place here.


Heb “send.”


Heb “go down” or “tread.” The Hebrew term רְדוּ ( rÿdu ) may be from יָרַד ( yarad , “to go down”) or from רָדָה ( radah , “have dominion,” here in the sense of “to tread”). If it means “go down,” the reference would be to entering the vat to squash the grapes. If it means “tread,” the verb would refer specifically to the action of those who walk over the grapes to press out their juice. The phrase “the grapes” is supplied in the translation for clarity.


Heb “gather in.”


Heb “he sounds forth his voice.”


Or “the sky.” See the note on “sky” in 2:30 .


Heb “sons.”


Heb “know.”


Heb “strangers” or “foreigners.” In context, this refers to invasions by conquering armies.


Heb “and it will come about in that day.”


Many English translations read “new wine” or “sweet wine,” meaning unfermented wine, i.e., grape juice.


Or “seasonal streams.”


Heb “house.”


Heb “valley of Shittim.” The exact location of the Valley of Acacia Trees is uncertain. The Hebrew word שִׁטִּים ( shittim ) refers to a place where the acacia trees grow, which would be a very arid and dry place. The acacia tree can survive in such locations, whereas most other trees require more advantageous conditions. Joel’s point is that the stream that has been mentioned will proceed to the most dry and barren of locations in the vicinity of Jerusalem.


Heb “violence of the sons of Judah.” The phrase “of the sons of Judah” is an objective genitive (cf. KJV “the violence against the children of Judah”; NAB, NIV, NRSV “violence done to the people of Judah”). It refers to injustices committed against the Judeans, not violence that the Judeans themselves had committed against others.


The phrase “will be secure” does not appear in the Hebrew, but are supplied in the translation for the sake of smoothness.


The present translation follows the reading וְנִקַּמְתִּי ( vÿniqqamti , “I will avenge”) rather than וְנִקֵּתִי ( vÿniqqeti , “I will acquit”) of the MT.


Heb “The words of Amos.” Among the prophetic books this opening phrase finds a parallel only at Jer 1:1 but is not that uncommon in other genres (note, e.g., Prov 30:1; 31:1 ; Eccl 1:1 ; Neh 1:1 ).


Heb “who.” Here a new sentence has been started in the translation for stylistic reasons.


Heb “which he saw concerning Israel.”


Heb “in the days of.”


The Hebrew text repeats, “and in the days of.” This phrase has not been repeated in the translation for stylistic reasons.


Heb “he;” the referent (Amos) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


For location see Map5-B1 ; Map6-F3 ; Map7-E2 ; Map8-F2 ; Map10-B3 ; JP1-F4 ; JP2-F4 ; JP3-F4 ; JP4-F4 .


Heb “gives his voice.”


Lexicographers debate whether there are two roots אָבַל (’ aval ), one signifying “mourn” and the other “be dry,” or simply one (“mourn”). The parallel verb (“withers”) might favor the first option and have the meaning “wilt away.” It is interesting to note, however, that the root appears later in the book in the context of lament ( 5:16; 8:8, 10; 9:5 ). Either 1:2 is a possible wordplay to alert the reader to the death that will accompany the judgment (the option of two roots), or perhaps the translation “mourns” is appropriate here as well (cf. KJV, NASB, NKJV, NJPS; see also D. J. A. Clines, “Was There an ’BL II ‘Be Dry’ in Classical Hebrew?” VT 42 [1992]: 1-10).


Traditionally, “transgressions” or “sins.” The word refers to rebellion against authority and is used in the international political realm (see 1 Kgs 12:19 ; 2 Kgs 1:1; 3:5, 7; 8:22 ). There is debate over its significance in this context. Some relate the “rebellion” of the foreign nations to God’s mandate to Noah ( Gen 9:5-7 ). This mandate is viewed as a treaty between God and humankind, whereby God holds humans accountable to populate the earth and respect his image as it is revealed in all people. While this option is a possible theological explanation of the message in light of the Old Testament as a whole, nothing in these oracles alludes to that Genesis passage. J. Barton suggests that the prophet is appealing to a common morality shared across the ancient Near East regarding the conduct of war since all of the oracles can be related to activities and atrocities committed in warfare ( Amos’s Oracles against the Nations [SOTSMS], 39-61). The “transgression” then would be a violation of what all cultures would take as fundamental human decency. Some argue that the nations cited in Amos 1-2 had been members of the Davidic empire. Their crime would consist of violating the mutual agreements that all should have exhibited toward one another (cf. M. E. Polley, Amos and the Davidic Empire ). This interpretation is connected to the notion that Amos envisions a reconstituted Davidic empire for Israel and the world ( 9:11-15 ). Ultimately, we can only speculate what lay behind Amos’ thinking. He does not specify the theological foundation of his universal moral vision, but it is clear that Amos believes that all nations are responsible before the Lord for their cruelty toward other human beings. He also assumes that even those who did not know his God would recognize their inhumane treatment of others as inherently wrong. The translation “crimes” is general enough to communicate that a standard (whether human or divine) has been breached. For a survey of the possible historical events behind each oracle, see S. M. Paul, Amos (Hermeneia).


Heb “Because of three violations of Damascus, even because of four.” sn The three…four style introduces each of the judgment oracles of chaps. 1-2 . Based on the use of a similar formula in wisdom literature (see Prov 30:18-19, 29-31 ), one expects to find in each case a list of four specific violations. However, only in the eighth oracle (against Israel) does one find the expected fourfold list. Through this adaptation and alteration of the normal pattern the Lord indicates that his focus is Israel (he is too bent on judging Israel to dwell very long on her neighbors) and he emphasizes Israel’s guilt with respect to the other nations. (Israel’s list fills up before the others’ lists do.) See R. B. Chisholm, “For Three Sins…Even for Four: The Numerical Sayings in Amos,” BSac 147 (1990): 188-97.


Heb “I will not bring it [or “him”] back.” The pronominal object (1) refers to the decree of judgment that follows; the referent (the decree) has been specified in the translation for clarity. See S. M. Paul, Amos (Hermeneia), 46-47. Another option (2) is to understand the suffix as referring to the particular nation mentioned in the oracle and to translate, “I will not take him [i.e., that particular nation] back.” In this case the Lord makes it clear that he does not intend to resume treaty relations with the nation in view. See M. L. Barré, “The Meaning of lá ásŒybnw in Amos 1:3-2:6 ,” JBL 105 (1986): 622.


Heb “they threshed [or “trampled down”] Gilead with sharp iron implements” (NASB similar). sn Like threshing sledges with iron teeth . A threshing sledge was made of wooden boards embedded with sharp stones or iron teeth. As the sledge was pulled over the threshing floor the stones or iron teeth would separate the grain from the stalks. See O. Borowski, Agriculture in Iron Age Israel , 64-65. Here the threshing metaphor is used to emphasize how violently and inhumanely the Arameans (the people of Damascus) had treated the people of Gilead (located east of the Jordan River).


“Hazael’s house” (“the house of Hazael”) refers to the dynasty of Hazael. sn Hazael took the throne of Aram in 843 b.c. and established a royal dynasty. See 2 Kgs 8:7-15 and W. Pitard, Ancient Damascus , 145-60.


Heb “it”; the referent (the fire mentioned in the previous line) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


Heb “cut off.”


Heb “the one who sits.” Some English versions take the Hebrew term in a collective sense as “inhabitants” (e.g., KJV, NKJV, NASB, NRSV). The context and the parallel in the next clause (“the one who holds the royal scepter”), however, suggest that the royal house is in view. For this term ( יוֹשֵׁב , yoshev ), see N. K. Gottwald, The Tribes of Yahweh , 512-30.


Heb “valley of wickedness.” Though many English versions take the Hebrew phrase בִקְעַת־אָוֶן ( biq ’ -at ’ aven ) as a literal geographical place name (“Valley of Aven,” so NAB, NASB, NIV, NRSV, NLT), it appears to be a derogatory epithet for Damascus and the kingdom of Aram.


Many associate the name “Beth Eden” with Bit Adini, an Aramean state located near the Euphrates River, but it may be a sarcastic epithet meaning “house of pleasure.”


Traditionally, “transgressions” (KJV, ASV, NASB, NRSV) or “sins” (NIV). For an explanation of the atrocities outlined in this oracle as treaty violations of God’s mandate to Noah in Gen 9:5-7 , see the note on the word “violations” in 1:3 .


Heb “Because of three violations of Gaza, even because of four.” sn On the three…four style that introduces each of the judgment oracles of chaps. 1-2 see the note on the word “four” in 1:3 .


Heb “I will not bring it [or “him”] back.” The translation understands the pronominal object to refer to the decree of judgment that follows; the referent (the decree) has been specified in the translation for clarity. For another option see the note on the word “judgment” in 1:3 .


Heb “[group of] exiles.” A number of English translations take this as a collective singular and translate it with a plural (e.g., NAB, NIV, NRSV).


Heb “in order to hand them over.”


Heb “the one who sits.” Some translations take this expression as a collective singular referring to the inhabitants rather than the ruler (e.g., NAB, NRSV, NLT).


Heb “I will turn my hand against Ekron.” For other uses of the idiom, “turn the hand against,” see Ps 81:14 ; Isa 1:25 ; Jer 6:9 ; Zech 13:7 .


Heb “and the remnant of the Philistines will perish.” The translation above assumes that reference is made to other Philistines beside those living in the cities mentioned. Another option is to translate, “Every last Philistine will die.”


Heb “Because of three violations of Tyre, even because of four.” sn On the three…four style that introduces each of the judgment oracles of chaps. 1-2 see the note on the word “four” in 1:3 .


Heb “handed over.”


Heb “[group of] exiles.” A similar phrase occurs in v. 6 .


Heb “did not remember.”


Heb “Because of three violations of Edom, even because of four.” sn On the three…four style that introduces each of the judgment oracles of chaps. 1-2 see the note on the word “four” in 1:3 .


Or “He stifled his compassion.” The Hebrew term רָחֲמָיו ( rakhamayv ) is better understood here (parallel to “brother/treaty partner”) as a reference to “allies” which Edom betrayed. An Aramaic cognate is attested (see DNWSI 2:1069-70). See M. Fishbane, “The Treaty Background of Amos 1:11 and Related Matters,” JBL 89 (1970): 313-18; idem, “Critical Note: Additional Remarks on rh£myw ( Amos 1:11 ),” JBL 91 (1972): 391-93; and M. Barré, “ Amos 1:11 reconsidered,” CBQ 47 (1985) 420-27. Some argue that the clause is best translated as “and destroyed his womenfolk.” רַחַם ( rakham ) means “womb”; the plural here would be a metonymy for “women” and could establish a parallel with the atrocity of 1:13 . See S. M. Paul, Amos (Hermeneia), 64-65.


Heb “his anger tore continually.” The Hebrew verb טָרַף ( taraf , “tear apart”) is often used of an animal tearing apart its prey. The word picture here is that of a vicious predator’s feeding frenzy.


Traditionally, “he kept his fury continually.” The Hebrew term שְׁמָרָה ( shÿmarah ) could be taken as a Qal perfect 3rd person masculine singular with 3rd person feminine singular suffix (with mappiq omitted), “he kept it” (NASB, NKJV, NRSV). It is also possible in light of the parallelism that שָׁמַר ( shamar ) is a rare homonym cognate to an Akkadian verb meaning “to rage; to be furious.” Repointing the verb as שָׁמְרָה ( shamÿrah , third person feminine singular), one could translate literally, “his fury raged continually” (NIV, NJPS).


Heb “it”; the referent (the fire mentioned in the previous line) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


Heb “Because of three violations of the Ammonites, even because of four.” On the three…four style that introduces each of the judgment oracles of chaps. 1-2 see the note on the word “four” in 1:3 .


Heb “with a war cry in the day of battle.”


Heb “with wind in the day of the windstorm.” sn A windstorm is a metaphor for judgment and destruction in the OT (see Isa 29:6 ; Jer 23:19 ) and ancient Near Eastern literature.


Heb “their”; the referent (Ammon) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


Heb “will go into exile.”


Or “princes” (KJV, NAB, NASB, NLT); TEV “officers”; CEV “leaders.”


The words “will be carried off” are supplied in the translation for clarification.


Traditionally, “transgressions” (KJV, ASV, NASB, NRSV) or “sins” (NIV). For an explanation of the atrocities outlined in this oracle as treaty violations of God’s mandate to Noah in Gen 9:5-7 , see the note on the word “violations” in 1:3 .


Heb “Because of three violations of Moab, even because of four.” sn On the three…four style that introduces each of the judgment oracles of chaps. 1-2 see the note on the word “four” in 1:3 .


Heb “I will not bring it [or “him”] back.” The translation understands the pronominal object to refer to the decree of judgment that follows; the referent (the decree) has been specified in the translation for clarity. For another option see the note on the word “judgment” in 1:3 .


Or “die” (KJV, NASB, NRSV, TEV); NAB “shall meet death.”


Or “in the tumult.” This word refers to the harsh confusion of sounds that characterized an ancient battle – a mixture of war cries, shouts, shrieks of pain, clashes of weapons, etc.


Heb “sound” (so KJV, NASB, NRSV).


Heb “cut off” (so KJV, NASB, NRSV); NAB “root out”; NCV “bring to an end.”


Heb “the leader [traditionally, “judge”] from her midst.”


Heb “her”; the referent (Moab) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


Or “princes” (KJV, NAB, NASB, NLT); TEV, CEV “leaders.”


This is the same Hebrew term that is translated “crimes” in the previous oracles (see at 1:3 ). The change to “covenant transgressions” reflects the probability that the prophet is condemning the nation of Israel for violating stipulations of the Mosaic Law.


Heb “Because of three violations of Judah, even because of four.” sn On the three…four style that introduces each of the judgment oracles of chaps. 1-2 see the note on the word “four” in 1:3 .


Or “instruction”; NCV “teachings.”


Heb “lies.” This may very well be a derogatory term for idols (perhaps also at Ps. 40:4 [Heb 40:5]). Elsewhere false gods are called “vanities” ( Deut 32:21 ; 1 Kgs 16:13, 26 ) and a delusion ( Isa 66:3 ). In no other prophetic passages, however, are they called “lies.” The term could refer to the deceptions of false prophets (note Ezek 13:6-9 ; cf. Hab 2:3 ). See F. I. Andersen and D. N. Freedman, Amos (AB), 301-6.


Heb “after which their fathers walked.” The expression “to walk after” is an idiom meaning “to be loyal to.” See S. M. Paul, Amos (Hermeneia), 75-76. sn Here the idolatry of the parents carried over to the children, who persisted in worshiping the idols to which their fathers were loyal .


For the location of Jerusalem see Map5-B1 ; Map6-F3 ; Map7-E2 ; Map8-F2 ; Map10-B3 ; JP1-F4 ; JP2-F4 ; JP3-F4 ; JP4-F4 .


For this translation see the note at 2:4 .


Heb “Because of three violations of Israel, even because of four.” sn On the three…four style that introduces each of the judgment oracles of chaps. 1-2 see the note on the word “four” in 1:3 . Only in this last oracle against Israel does one find the list of four specific violations expected based on the use of a similar formula elsewhere in wisdom literature (see Prov 30:18-19, 29-31 ). This adaptation of the normal pattern indicates the Lord ’s focus on Israel here (he is too bent on judging Israel to dwell very long on her neighbors) and emphasizes Israel’s guilt with respect to the other nations (Israel’s list fills up before the others’ lists do). See R. B. Chisholm, “‘For three sins...even for four’: the numerical sayings in Amos,” BSac 147 (1990) 188-97.


Or “honest” (CEV, NLT). The Hebrew word sometimes has a moral-ethical connotation, “righteous, godly,” but the parallelism (note “poor”) suggests a socio-economic or legal sense here. The practice of selling debtors as slaves is in view ( Exod 21:2-11 ; Lev 25:35-55 ; Deut 15:12-18 ) See the note at Exod 21:8 and G. C. Chirichigno, Debt-Slavery in Israel and the Ancient Near East (JSOTSup). Probably the only “crime” the victim had committed was being unable to pay back a loan or an exorbitant interest rate on a loan. Some have suggested that this verse refers to bribery in legal proceedings: The innocent are “sold” in the sense that those in power pay off the elders or judges for favorable decisions ( 5:12 ; cf. Exod 23:6-7 ).


Perhaps the expression “for a pair of sandals” indicates a relatively small price or debt. Some suggest that the sandals may have been an outward token of a more substantial purchase price. Others relate the sandals to a ritual attached to the transfer of property, signifying here that the poor would be losing their inherited family lands because of debt ( Ruth 4:7 ; cf. Deut 25:8-10 ). Still others emend the Hebrew form slightly to נֶעְלָם ( ne ’ lam , “hidden thing”; from the root עָלַם , ’ alam , “to hide”) and understand this as referring to a bribe.


Most scholars now understand this verb as derived from the root II שָׁאַף ( sha ’ af , “to crush; to trample”), an alternate form of שׁוּף ( shuf ), rather than from I שָׁאַף ( sha ’ af , “to pant, to gasp”; cf. KJV, ASV, NASB).


Heb “those who stomp on the dirt of the ground on the head of the poor.” It is possible to render the line as “they trample the heads of the poor into the dust of the ground,” thereby communicating that the poor are being stepped on in utter contempt (see S. M. Paul, Amos [Hermeneia], 79-80). The participial form הַשֹּׁאֲפִים ( hasho ’ afim ) is substantival and stands in apposition to the pronominal suffix on מִכְרָם ( mikhram , v. 6 b). sn The picture of the poor having dirt-covered heads suggests their humiliation before their oppressors and/or their sorrow (see 2 Sam 1:2; 15:32 ).


Heb “they turn aside the way of the destitute.” Many interpreters take “way” to mean “just cause” and understand this as a direct reference to the rights of the destitute being ignored. The injustice done to the poor is certainly in view, but the statement is better taken as a word picture depicting the powerful rich pushing the “way of the poor” (i.e., their attempt to be treated justly) to the side. An even more vivid picture is given in Amos 5:12 , where the rich are pictured as turning the poor away from the city gate (where legal decisions were made, and therefore where justice should be done).


Or “pollute”; “desecrate”; “dishonor.”


Heb “my holy name.” Here “name” is used metonymically for God’s moral character or reputation, while “holy” has a moral and ethical connotation.


The words “They do so right” are supplied twice in the translation of this verse for clarification.


Heb “house.”


Or “gods.” The Hebrew term אֱלֹהֵיהֶם (’ elohehem ) may be translated “their gods” (referring to pagan gods), “their god” (referring to a pagan god, cf. NAB, NIV, NLT), or “their God” (referring to the God of Israel, cf. NASB, NRSV).


Heb “I destroyed the Amorites from before them.” The translation takes מִפְּנֵי ( mippÿney ) in the sense of “for the sake of.” See BDB 818 s.v. פָּנֻה II.6.a and H. W. Wolff, Joel and Amos (Hermeneia), 134. Another option is to take the phrase in a spatial sense, “I destroyed the Amorites, [clearing them out] from before them [i.e., Israel]” (cf. NIV, NRSV).


Heb “whose height was like the height of cedars.”


Heb “his fruit from above.”


Heb “and his roots from below.”


Or perhaps “religious devotees” (also in the following verse). The Hebrew term נָזִיר ( nazir ) refers to one who “consecrated” or “devoted” to God (see Num 6:1-21 ).


The precise meaning of this verse is unclear. Various suggested meanings have been proposed (see S. M. Paul, Amos [Hermeneia], 94): (1) One option is to relate the verb to an Arabic verb, meaning “to hinder; to hamper,” and translate, “I am making you immobile, like a cart filled with grain is immobile.” In this case, the Lord refers to Israel’s inability to escape his coming judgment (see vv. 14-16 ; NJPS). (2) Another view relates the verb to a different Arabic verb meaning “to cut in pieces,” translating “I will cut you in pieces as a cart cuts in pieces [the earth],” referring to the ruts and rifts in the ground caused by an earthquake. (3) Some relate the verb to an Arabic root meaning “to groan” with the idea that the Lord causes the ground underneath Israel to groan (cf. NLT). (4) The translation connects the verb to an Aramaism signifying to “press down” (cf. NIV, NRSV). Some English versions translate the verb in an intransitive sense as “I am weighted down” (cf. NASB, NKJV) or “I groan beneath you” (NEB). For this last option, see F. I. Andersen and D. N. Freedman, Amos (AB), 334.


Heb “and a place of refuge will perish from the swift.”


Heb “the strong will not increase his strength.”


Heb “the one who holds the bow.”


For the idiom of “holding [or “standing”] one’s ground” in battle, there is a similar phrase in Ezek 13:5 ; also related is the expression “to hold one’s own against” (or “to withstand”) in Judg 2:14 ; 2 Kgs 10:4 ; Dan 8:7 (see S. M. Paul, Amos [Hermeneia], 97). Other options include “will not endure” or “will not survive.”


The last two lines read literally, “The one fast in his feet will not rescue [his life], and the rider of the horse will not rescue his life.” The phrase “his life” does double duty in the parallelism and should be understood in both lines.


Or “the most stouthearted” (NAB); NRSV “those who are stout of heart.”


Or “about.”


One might expect a third person verb form (“he brought up”), since the Lord apparently refers to himself in the third person in the preceding sentence. This first person form, however, serves to connect this message to the earlier indictment ( 2:10 ) and anticipates the words of the following verse.


Heb “You only have I known.” The Hebrew verb יָדַע ( yada ’) is used here in its covenantal sense of “recognize in a special way.”


Heb “without having prey [or “food”].”


Heb “If the ram’s horn is blown.”


Or “tremble” (NASB, NIV, NCV); or “shake.”


Heb “is in”; NIV, NCV, NLT “comes to.”


Heb “has the Lord not acted?”


Heb “on” or “over” (also later in this verse).


The Hebrew noun carries the nuance of “panic” or “confusion.” Here it refers metonymically to the violent deeds that terrorize the oppressed.


Heb “in her midst” (so NAB, NASB); NIV “among her people.”


The translation assumes the form is an abstract plural (see Job 35:9 ; Eccl 4:1 ). Another option is to understand the form as a substantival passive participle and translate, “the oppressed” (so KJV).


Heb “within her.”


Heb “those who.”


Heb “violence and destruction.” The expression “violence and destruction” stand metonymically for the goods the oppressors have accumulated by their unjust actions.


The MT reads “an enemy and around the land.” It is also possible to take the MT as an exclamation (“an enemy, and all about the land!”; see S. M. Paul, Amos [Hermeneia], 118; NJPS; cf. NLT).Most scholars and versions emend the text to יְסוֹבֵב ( yÿsovev , Polel imperfect), “will encircle.”


Heb “He will bring down your power from you.” Some emend the text to read “Your power will be brought down from you.” The shift, however, from an active to a passive sense also appears at 3:14 (“I will destroy Bethel’s altars. The horns of the altar will be cut off.”) The pronouns (“your…you”) are feminine singular, indicating that the personified city of Samaria is addressed here. Samaria’s “power” here is her defenses and/or wealth.


Heb “with a corner of a bed.”


The meaning of the Hebrew word דְּמֶשֶׁק ( dÿmesheq ), which occurs only here, is uncertain. If not emended, it is usually related to the term ַדּמֶּשֶׂק ( dammeseq ) and translated as the “Damask linens” of the bed (cf. NASB “the cover”) or as “in Damascus” (so KJV, NJB, NIV). The differences in spelling (Damascus is spelled correctly in 5:27 ), historical considerations, and the word order make both of these derivations unlikely. Many emendations have been proposed (e.g., “a part from the foot [of a bed],” based on a different division of the Hebrew letters (cf. NEB, NRSV); “on the edge,” based on a Hebrew term not attested in the Bible (NKJV). Some suggest a resemblance to an Akkadian term which means “sideboard [of a bed],” which is sometimes incorrectly rendered “headboard” (NJPS; see S. M. Paul, Amos [Hermeneia], 121-22). Most likely another part of a bed or couch is in view, but it is difficult to be more specific.


Or “testify against.”


Heb “house.”


These words are spoken to either the unidentified heralds addressed at the beginning of v. 9 , or to the Egyptians and Philistines (see v. 9 b). Another possibility is that one is not to look for a specific addressee but rather appreciate the command simply as a rhetorical device to grab the attention of the listeners and readers of the prophetic message.


Traditionally, “the God of hosts.”


Heb “in the day.”


Heb “his.” With the referent “Israel” here, this amounts to a collective singular.


Traditionally, “transgressions, sins,” but see the note on the word “crimes” in 1:3 .


Heb “punish” (so NASB, NRSV).


For location see Map4-G4 ; Map5-C1 ; Map6-E3 ; Map7-D1 ; Map8-G3 .


Heb “the winter house along with the summer house.” sn Like kings, many in Israel’s wealthy class owned both winter and summer houses (cf. 1 Kgs 21:1,18 ; Jer 36:22 ). For a discussion of archaeological evidence relating to these structures, see P. King, Amos, Hosea, Micah , 64-65.


Heb “houses of ivory.” These houses were not made of ivory, but they had ivory panels and furniture decorated with ivory inlays. See P. King, Amos, Hosea, Micah , 139-48.


Or “many,” cf. NAB “their many rooms.”


The translation assumes the form is from the Hebrew verb סָפָה ( safah , “to sweep away”) rather than סוּף ( suf , “to come to an end”), which is the choice of most versions. Either option effectively communicates the destruction of the structures.


Heb “the ones who” (three times in this verse).


Heb “their.”


Heb “swears by his holiness.” sn The message that follows is an unconditional oath, the fulfillment of which is just as certain as the Lord ’s own holy character .


Heb “Look, certainly days are coming upon you”; NRSV “the time is surely coming upon you.”


Heb “one will carry you away”; NASB “they will take you away.”


The meaning of the Hebrew word translated “baskets” is uncertain. The translation follows the suggestion of S. M. Paul ( Amos [Hermeneia], 128), who discusses the various options (130-32): “shields” (cf. NEB); “ropes”; “thorns,” which leads to the most favored interpretation, “hooks” (cf. NASB “meat hooks”; NIV, NRSV “hooks”); “baskets,” and (derived from “baskets”) “boats.” Against the latter, it is unlikely that Amos envisioned a deportation by boat for the inhabitants of Samaria! See also the note on the expression “fishermen’s pots” later in this verse.


Or “your children”; KJV “your posterity.”


The meaning of the Hebrew expression translated “in fishermen’s pots” is uncertain. The translation follows that of S. M. Paul ( Amos [Hermeneia], 128), who discusses the various options (132-33): “thorns,” understood by most modern interpreters to mean (by extension) “fishhooks” (cf. NASB, NIV, NRSV); “boats,” but as mentioned in the previous note on the word “baskets,” a deportation of the Samaritans by boat is geographically unlikely; and “pots,” referring to a container used for packing fish (cf. NEB “fish-baskets”). Paul (p. 134) argues that the imagery comes from the ancient fishing industry. When hauled away into exile, the women of Samaria will be like fish packed and transported to market. sn The imagery of catching fish in connection with the captivity of Israel is also found in Jer 16:16 and Hab 1:14 .


Heb “and [through the] breaches you will go out, each straight ahead.”


The Hiphil verb form has no object. It may be intransitive (F. I. Andersen and D. N. Freedman, Amos [AB], 425), though many emend it to a Hophal.


The meaning of this word is unclear. Many understand it as a place name, though such a location is not known. Some (e.g., H. W. Wolff, Joel and Amos [Hermeneia[, 204) emend to “Hermon” or to similarly written words, such as “the dung heap” (NEB, NJPS), “the garbage dump” (NCV), or “the fortress” (cf. NLT “your fortresses”).


The Hebrew word translated “rebel” (also in the following line) could very well refer here to Israel’s violations of their covenant with God (see also the term “crimes” in 1:3 [with note] and the phrase “covenant transgressions” in 2:4 [with note]; 3:14 ).


Or “for.”


Heb “proclaim voluntary offerings, announce.”


The Hebrew construction is emphatic (pronoun + verb). It underscores the stark contrast between the judgments that the Lord had been sending with the God of blessing Israel was celebrating in its worship ( 4:4-5 ).


Heb “But I gave to you cleanness of teeth in all your cities, and lack of food in all your places.” The phrase “cleanness of teeth” is a vivid way of picturing the famine Israel experienced.


Heb “portion”; KJV, ASV “piece”; NASB “part.” The same word occurs a second time later in this verse.


The words “people from” are supplied in the translation for clarification.


Heb “to drink.”


Or “were not satisfied.”


Heb “you.” By metonymy the crops belonging to these people are meant. See the remainder of this verse, which describes the agricultural devastation caused by locusts.


The Hiphil infinitive construct is taken adverbially (“kept”) and connected to the activity of the locusts (NJPS). It also could be taken with the preceding sentence and related to the Lord’s interventions (“I kept destroying,” cf. NEB, NJB, NIV, NRSV), or it could be understood substantivally in construct with the following nouns (“Locusts devoured your many orchards,” cf. NASB; cf. also KJV, NKJV).


Or “gardens.”


Heb “in the manner [or “way”] of Egypt.”


Heb “of your camps [or “armies”].”


Several English versions substitute the first person pronoun (“I”) here for stylistic reasons (e.g., NIV, NCV, TEV, CEV, NLT).


Heb “like God’s overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah.” The divine name may be used in an idiomatic superlative sense here, in which case one might translate, “like the great [or “disastrous”] overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah.” sn The destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah is described in Gen 19:1-29 .


Heb “like that which is burning.”


The Lord appears to announce a culminating judgment resulting from Israel’s obstinate refusal to repent. The following verse describes the Lord in his role as sovereign judge, but it does not outline the judgment per se. For this reason F. I. Andersen and D. N. Freedman ( Amos [AB], 450) take the prefixed verbal forms as preterites referring to the series of judgments detailed in vv. 6-11 . It is more likely that a coming judgment is in view, but that its details are omitted for rhetorical effect, creating a degree of suspense (see S. M. Paul, Amos [Hermeneia], 149-50) that will find its solution in chapter . This line is an ironic conclusion to the section begun at 4:4 . Israel thought they were meeting the Lord at the sanctuaries, yet they actually had misunderstood how he had been trying to bring them back to himself. Now Israel would truly meet the Lord – not at the sanctuaries, but face-to-face in judgment.


Heb “For look, the one who.” This verse is considered to be the first hymnic passage in the book. The others appear at 5:8-9 and 9:5-6 . Scholars debate whether these verses were originally part of a single hymn or three distinct pieces deliberately placed in each context for particular effect.


Or “declares” (NAB, NASB).


Or “his thoughts.” The translation assumes that the pronominal suffix refers to God and that divine self-revelation is in view (see 3:7 ). If the suffix refers to the following term אָדַם (’ adam , “men”), then the expression refers to God’s ability to read men’s minds.


Heb “he who makes dawn, darkness.” The meaning of the statement is unclear. The present translation assumes that allusion is made to God’s approaching judgment, when the light of day will be turned to darkness (see 5:20 ). Other options include: (1) “He makes the dawn [and] the darkness.” A few Hebrew mss , as well as the LXX, add the conjunction (“and”) between the two nouns. (2) “He turns darkness into glimmering dawn” (NJPS). See S. M. Paul ( Amos [Hermeneia], 154), who takes שָׁחַר ( shakhar ) as “blackness” rather than “dawn” and עֵיפָה (’ efah ) as “glimmering dawn” rather than “darkness.”


Traditionally, “God of hosts.”


Heb “Listen to this word which I am about to take up against you, a funeral song.”


Heb “house.”


Or “young lady.” The term “Israel” is an appositional genitive.


Or “with no one to lift her up.”


The word “soldiers” is supplied in the translation for clarification.


Heb “The one.” The word “town” has been used in the translation in keeping with the relative sizes of the armed contingents sent out by each. It is also possible that this line is speaking of the same city of the previous line. In other words, the contingent sent by that one city would have suffered a ninety-nine percent casualty loss.


Heb “for/to the house of Israel.” The translation assumes that this is a graphic picture of what is left over for the defense of the nation (NEB, NJB, NASB, NKJV). Others suggest that this phrase completes the introductory formula (“The sovereign Lord says this…”; see v. 4 a; NJPS). Another option is that the preposition has a vocative force, “O house of Israel” (F. I. Andersen and D. N. Freedman, Amos [AB], 476). Some simply delete the phrase as dittography from the following line (NIV).


Heb “cross over.” sn To worship at Beer Sheba, northern worshipers had to journey down (i.e., cross the border) between Israel and Judah. Apparently, the popular religion of Israel for some included pilgrimage to holy sites in the South.


Heb “For Gilgal.” By metonymy the place name “Gilgal” is used instead of referring directly to the inhabitants. The words “the people of” are supplied in the translation for clarification.


In the Hebrew text the statement is emphasized by sound play. The name “Gilgal” sounds like the verb גָּלָה ( galah , “to go into exile”), which occurs here in the infinitival + finite verb construction ( גָּלֹה יִגְלֶה , galoh yigleh ). The repetition of the “ ג ” ( g ) and “ ל ” ( l ) sounds draws attention to the announcement and suggests that Gilgal’s destiny is inherent in its very name. sn That the people of Gilgal would be taken into exile is ironic, for Gilgal was Israel’s first campsite when the people entered the land under Joshua and the city became a symbol of Israel’s possession of the promised land.


Heb “disaster,” or “nothing”; NIV “Bethel will be reduced to nothing.” sn Again there is irony. The name Bethel means “house of God” in Hebrew. How surprising and tragic that Bethel, the “house of God” where Jacob received the inheritance given to Abraham, would be overrun by disaster .


Heb “rush.” The verb depicts swift movement.


Heb “it”; the referent (the fire mentioned in the previous line) has been supplied in the translation for clarity.


Heb “to/for Bethel.” The translation assumes that the preposition indicates advantage, “on behalf of.” Another option is to take the preposition as vocative, “O Bethel.”


Heb “Those who”; the referent (the Israelites) has been specified in the translation for clarity. In light of vv. 11-13 , it is also possible that the words are directed at a more limited group within the nation – those with social and economic power.


There is an interesting wordplay here with the verb הָפַךְ ( hafakh , “overturn, turn”). Israel “turns” justice into wormwood (cf. 6:12 ), while the Lord “turns” darkness into morning (v. 8 ; cf. 4:11; 8:10 ). Israel’s turning is for evil, whereas the Lord’s is to demonstrate his absolute power and sovereignty.


Heb “they throw righteousness.”


Heb “darkens the day into night.”


The precise meaning of the Hebrew verb בָּלַג ( balag , translated here “flashes”) is uncertain.


Heb “comes upon.” Many prefer to repoint the verb as Hiphil and translate, “he brings destruction upon the fortified places.”


Heb “they”; the referent (the Israelites) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


Traditionally, “because you trample on the poor” (cf. KJV, ASV, NAB, NIV, NRSV, NLT). The traditional view derives the verb from בּוּס ( bus , “to trample”; cf. Isa. 14:25 ), but more likely it is cognate to an Akkadian verb meaning “to exact an agricultural tax” (see H. R. Cohen, Biblical Hapax Legomena [SBLDS], 49; S. M. Paul, Amos [Hermeneia], 172-73).


Or “lovely”; KJV, NASB, NRSV “pleasant”; NAB “choice”; NIV “lush.”


Heb “Houses of chiseled stone you built, but you will not live in them. Fine vineyards you planted, but you will not drink their wine.”


Or “for.”


Or “I know” (so most English versions).


Or “transgressions,” “sins.” See the note on the word “crimes” in 1:3 and on the phrase “covenant violations” in 2:4 .


Heb “Those who.”


Heb “turn aside.” They “turn aside” the needy by denying them the justice they deserve at the city gate (where legal decisions were made, and therefore where justice should be done).


Or “the wise”; or “the prudent.” Another option is to translate “the successful, prosperous” and understand this as a reference to the rich oppressors. See G. V. Smith, Amos , 169-70. In this case the following verb will also have a different nuance, that is, the wealthy remain silent before the abuses they perpetuate. See the note on the verb translated “keeps quiet” later in this verse.


Or “moans, laments,” from a homonymic verbal root. If the rich oppressors are in view, then the verb (whether translated “will be silenced” or “will lament”) describes the result of God’s judgment upon them. See G. V. Smith, Amos , 170.


If this is a judgment announcement against the rich, then the Hebrew phrase עֵת רָעָה (’ et ra ’ ah ) must be translated, “[a] disastrous time.” See G. V. Smith, Amos , 170.


Heb “set up, establish.” In the ancient Near East it was the responsibility especially of the king to establish justice. Here the prophet extends that demand to local leaders and to the nation as a whole (cf. 5:24 ).


Or “will show favor to.”


Or “the remnant of” (KJV, NAB, NASB, NIV, NRSV); CEV “what’s left of your people.”


Heb “Therefore.” This logical connector relates back to the accusation of vv. 10-13 , not to the parenthetical call to repentance in vv. 14-15 . To indicate this clearly, the phrase “Because of Israel’s sins” is used in the translation.


Or “the Lord.” The Hebrew term translated “sovereign One” here is אֲדֹנָי (’ adonay ).


Heb “they will say, ‘Ah! Ah!’” The Hebrew term הוֹ ( ho , “ah, woe”) is an alternate form of הוֹי ( hoy ), a word used to mourn the dead and express outwardly one’s sorrow. See 1 Kgs 13:30 ; Jer 22:18; 34:5 . This wordplay follows quickly, as v. 18 begins with הוֹי (“woe”).


Or “farmers” (NIV, NCV, NRSV, TEV, CEV, NLT).


Heb “those who know lamentation.” sn Professional mourners are referred to elsewhere in the OT ( 2 Chr 35:25 ; Jer 9:17 ) and ancient Near Eastern literature. See S. M. Paul, Amos (Hermeneia), 180.


The term הוֹי ( hoy , “woe”) was used when mourning the dead (see the note on the word “dead” in 5:16 ). The prophet here either engages in role playing and mourns the death of the nation in advance or sarcastically taunts those who hold to this misplaced belief.


The words “Disaster will be inescapable” are supplied in the translation for clarification.


Heb “went” (so KJV, NRSV).


Heb “Will not the day of the Lord be.”


Heb “I hate”; “I despise.”


Heb “I will not smell.” These verses are full of vivid descriptions of the Lord’s total rejection of Israelite worship. In the first half of this verse two verbs are used together for emphasis. Here the verb alludes to the sense of smell, a fitting observation since offerings would have been burned on the altar ideally to provide a sweet aroma to God (see, e.g., Lev 1:9, 13, 17 ; Num 29:36 ). Other senses that are mentioned include sight and hearing in vv. 22-23 .


Heb “burnt offerings and your grain offerings.”


Heb “Peace offering[s], your fattened calves, I will not look at.”


In this verse the second person suffixes are singular and not plural like they are in vv. 21-22 and vv. 25-27 . Some have suggested that perhaps a specific individual or group within the nation is in view.


The Hebrew word probably refers to “harps” (NASB, NIV, NRSV) or “lutes” (NEB).


Traditionally, “righteousness.”


Heb “Did you bring me…?” This rhetorical question expects a negative answer. The point seems to be this: Since sacrifices did not characterize God’s relationship with Israel during the nation’s formative years, the people should not consider them to be so fundamental. The Lord places a higher priority on justice than he does on empty ritual. sn Like Jer 7:22-23 , this passage seems to contradict the Pentateuchal accounts that indicate Israel did offer sacrifices during the wilderness period. It is likely that both Amos and Jeremiah overstate the case to emphasize the relative insignificance of sacrifices in comparison to weightier matters of the covenant. See R. de Vaux, Ancient Israel , 428.


Heb “house.”


This word appears in an awkward position in the Hebrew, following “Kiyyun.” It is placed here for better sense.


The Hebrew term סִכּוּת ( sikkut ) apparently refers to Sakkuth, a Mesopotamian star god identified with Ninurta in an Ugaritic god list. The name is vocalized in the Hebrew text after the pattern of שִׁקוּץ ( shiqquts , “detestable thing”). See S. M. Paul, Amos (Hermeneia), 195-96. Some English versions, following the LXX, translate as “tent” or “shrine” (NEB, NIV), pointing the term as סֻכַּת ( sukkat ; cf. 9:11 ).


LXX, Vulgate, and Acts 7:43 read “Moloch” (cf. KJV). The Hebrew consonants are the same for both “king” and “Moloch” ( מֹלֶךְ ; molekh ).


The Hebrew term כִּיּוּן ( kiyyun ) apparently refers to the Mesopotamian god Kayamanu, or Saturn. The name, like “Sikkuth” in the previous line, is vocalized in the Hebrew text after the pattern of שִׁקוּץ ( shiqquts , “detestable thing”). See S. M. Paul, Amos (Hermeneia), 195-96. Some versions translate as “pedestal” (NEB, NIV), relating the term to the root כּוּן ( kun ).


On the Hebrew term הוֹי ( hoy ; “ah, woe”) as a term of mourning, see the notes in 5:16, 18 .


The words “They think of themselves as” are supplied in the translation for clarification. In the Hebrew text the term נְקֻבֵי ( nÿquvey ; “distinguished ones, elite”) is in apposition to the substantival participles in the first line.


Heb “comes to them.”


The words “They say to the people” are interpretive and supplied in the translation for clarification. The translation understands v. 2 as the boastful words, which the leaders (described in v. 1 ) spoke to those who came to them (v. 1 b). Some interpret v. 2 differently, understanding the words as directed to the leaders by the prophet. Verse 2 b would then be translated: “Are you (i.e., Israel and Judah) better than these kingdoms (i.e., Calneh, etc.)? Is your border larger than their border?” (This reading requires an emendation of the Hebrew text toward the end of the verse.) In this case the verse is a reminder to Judah/Israel that they are not superior to other nations, which have already fallen victim to military conquest. Consequently Judah/Israel should not expect to escape the same fate. Following this line of interpretation, some take v. 2 as a later addition since the Assyrians under Tiglath-pileser III conquered Calneh, Hamath, and Gath after the time of Amos’ ministry. However, this conclusion is not necessary since the kingdoms mentioned here had suffered military setbacks prior to Amos’ time as well. See S. M. Paul, Amos (Hermeneia), 201-4.


Or “Great Hamath” (cf. NIV); or “Hamath the great” (cf. KJV, NAB, NASB, NRSV); the word “rabbah” means “great” in Hebrew.


Heb “to these,” referring to Judah and Israel (see v. 1 a).


Both rhetorical questions in this verse expect the answer “no.” If these words do come from the leaders, then this verse underscores their self-delusion of power (compare 6:13 ). The prophet had no such mistaken sense of national grandeur ( 7:2, 5 ).


Heb “those who push away a day of disaster.”


Heb “you bring near a seat of violence.” The precise meaning of the Hebrew term שֶׁבֶת ( shevet , “seat, sitting”) is unclear in this context. The translation assumes that it refers to a throne from which violence (in the person of the oppressive leaders) reigns. Another option is that the expression refers not to the leaders’ oppressive rule, but to the coming judgment when violence will overtake the nation in the person of enemy invaders.


Heb “beds of ivory.”


The meaning of the Hebrew verb פָּרַט ( parat ), which occurs only here in the OT, is unclear. Some translate “strum,” “pluck,” or “improvise.”


Heb “upon the mouth of,” that is, “according to.”


The meaning of the Hebrew phrase חָשְׁבוּ לָהֶם ( khoshvu lahem ) is uncertain. Various options include: (1) “they think their musical instruments are like David’s”; (2) “they consider themselves musicians like David”; (3) “they esteem musical instruments highly like David”; (4) “they improvise [new songs] for themselves [on] instruments like David”; (5) “they invent musical instruments like David.” However, the most commonly accepted interpretation is that given in the translation (see S. M. Paul, Amos [Hermeneia], 206-7).


Heb “with the best of oils they anoint [themselves].”


Or “not sickened by.”


Heb “they will go into exile at the head of the exiles.”


Heb “of the sprawled out.” See v. 4 .


Heb “swears by his life”; or “swears by himself.”


Heb “his,” referring to Jacob, which stands here for the nation of Israel.


The words “to their enemies” are supplied in the translation for clarification.


Heb “the city”; this probably refers to the city of Samaria (cf. 6:1 ), which in turn, by metonymy, represents the entire northern kingdom.


The translation assumes that “their relatives” and “the ones who will burn the corpses” are in apposition. Another option is to take them as distinct individuals, in which case one could translate, “When their close relatives and the ones who will burn the corpses pick up…” The meaning of the form translated “the ones who burn the corpses” is uncertain. Another option is to translate, “the ones who prepare the corpses for burial” (NASB “undertaker”; cf. also CEV). See S. M. Paul, Amos (Hermeneia), 215-16.


This verse is notoriously difficult to interpret. The Hebrew text literally reads, “And he will lift him up, his uncle, and the one burning him, to bring out bones from the house. And he will say to the one who is in the inner parts of the house, ‘Is there [anyone] still with you?’ And he will say, ‘Be quiet for not to invoke the name of the Lord .’” The translation assumes that the singular pronominal and verbal forms throughout the verse are collective or distributive. This last sentence has been interpreted in several ways: a command not to call on the name of the Lord out of fear that he might return again in judgment; the realization that it is not appropriate to seek a blessing in the Lord’s name upon the dead in the house since the judgment was deserved; an angry refusal to call on the Lord out of a sense that he has betrayed his people in allowing them to suffer.


Or “is issuing the decree.”


Heb “Does one plow with oxen?” This obviously does not fit the parallelism, for the preceding rhetorical question requires the answer, “Of course not!” An error of fusion has occurred in the Hebrew, with the word יָם ( yam , “sea”) being accidentally added as a plural ending to the collective noun בָּקָר ( baqar , “oxen”). A proper division of the consonants produces the above translation, which fits the parallelism and also anticipates the answer, “Of course not!”


Heb “those who rejoice over Lo-Debar.” sn Lo-Debar was located across the Jordan River in Gilead, which the Israelite army had conquered. However, there is stinging irony here, for in Hebrew the name Lo-Debar means “nothing.” In reality Israel was happy over nothing of lasting consequence.


Or “raise up” (KJV, NASB); NIV “stir up.”


Heb “house.”


Or “from the entrance to Hamath.” The Hebrew term לְבוֹא ( lÿvo ’) can either be translated or considered a part of the place name.


Heb “behold” or “look.”


Or “the mowings of the king.” sn This royal harvest may refer to an initial mowing of crops collected as taxes by the royal authorities.


“Israel” is supplied in the translation for clarity.


Heb “stand” (so ASV, NAB, NASB, NRSV).


Heb “small.”


Or “changed his mind about this.”


The Hebrew appears to read, “summoning to contend with fire,” or “summoning fire to contend,” but both are problematic syntactically (H. W. Wolff, Joel and Amos [Hermeneia], 292; S. M. Paul, Amos [Hermeneia], 230-31). Many emend the text to לרבב אשׁ , “(calling) for a shower of fire,” though this interpretation is also problematic (see F. I. Andersen and D. N. Freedman, Amos [AB], 746-47).


Heb “stand.”


Or “the Lord.” The Hebrew term translated “sovereign One” here and in the following verse is אֲדֹנָי (’ adonay ).


The Hebrew word אֲנָךְ (’ anakh , “tin”) occurs only in this passage (twice in this verse and twice in the following verse). (Its proposed meaning is based on an Akkadian cognate annaku .) The tin wall of the vision, if it symbolizes Israel, may suggest weakness and vulnerability to judgment. See S. M. Paul, Amos (Hermeneia), 233-35. The symbolic significance of God holding tin in his hand and then placing tin among the people is unclear. Possibly the term אֲנָךְ in v. 8 b is a homonym meaning “grief” (this term is attested in postbiblical Hebrew). In this case there is a wordplay, the אֲנָךְ (“tin”) of the vision suggesting the אֲנָךְ (“grief”) that judgment will bring upon the land. See F. I. Andersen and D. N. Freedman, Amos (AB), 759. Another option is to maintain the meaning “tin” and understand that the Lord has ripped off a piece of the tin wall and placed it in front of all to see. Their citadels, of which the nation was so proud and confident, are nothing more than tin fortresses. The traditional interpretation of these verses (reflected in many English versions) understands the term אֲנָךְ to mean “lead,” and by extension, “plumb line.” In this case, one may translate: “I saw the sovereign one standing by a wall built true to plumb holding a plumb line in his hand. The Lord said to me, ‘What do you see, Amos?’ I said, ‘A plumb line.’ The sovereign one then said, ‘Look, I am about to place a plumb line among my people…’” According to this view, the plumb line symbolizes God’s moral standards by which he will measure Israel to see if they are a straight or crooked wall.


Heb “And I will no longer pass over him.”


Traditionally, “the high places” (so KJV, NAB, NASB, NIV, NRSV); NLT “pagan shrines.”


Heb “And I will rise up against the house of Jeroboam with a sword.”


For location see Map4-G4 ; Map5-C1 ; Map6-E3 ; Map7-D1 ; Map8-G3 .


The direct object of the verb translated “sent” is elided in the Hebrew text. The words “this message” are supplied in the translation for clarity and for stylistic reasons.


Heb “in the middle of the house of Israel.”


Heb “words.”


Or “for.”


See the note on the word “exile” in 5:5 .


Traditionally, “seer.” The word is a synonym for “prophet,” though it may carry a derogatory tone on the lips of Amaziah.


Heb “Eat bread there.”


Heb “for it is a temple of a king and it is a royal house.” It is possible that the phrase “royal house” refers to a temple rather than a palace. See S. M. Paul, Amos (Hermeneia), 243.


Heb “replied and said.” The phrase “and said” is pleonastic (redundant) and has not been included in the translation.


Heb “I was not a prophet nor was I the son of a prophet.” The phrase “son of a prophet” refers to one who was trained in a prophetic guild. Since there is no equative verb present in the Hebrew text, another option is to translate with the present tense, “I am not a prophet by profession.” In this case Amos, though now carrying out a prophetic ministry (v. 15 ), denies any official or professional prophetic status. Modern English versions are divided about whether to understand the past (JB, NIV, NKJV) or present tense (NASB, NEB, NRSV, NJPS) here.


Heb “for.”


Heb “gashed”; or “pierced.” sn For a discussion of the agricultural background, see O. Borowski, Agriculture in Iron Age Israel , 128-29.


Heb “from [following] after.”


Heb “and the Lord said to me.”


The verb, which literally means “to drip,” appears to be a synonym of “to prophesy,” but it might carry a derogatory tone here, perhaps alluding to the impassioned, frenzied way in which prophets sometimes delivered their messages. If so, one could translate, “to drivel; to foam at the mouth” (see HALOT 694 s.v. נטף ).


Heb “in the city,” that is, “in public.”


Heb “will fall by the sword.”


Heb “will be divided up with a [surveyor’s] measuring line.”


Heb “[an] unclean”; or “[an] impure.” This fate would be especially humiliating for a priest, who was to distinguish between the ritually clean and unclean (see Lev 10:10 ).


Heb “behold” or “look.”


There is a wordplay here. The Hebrew word קֵץ ( qets , “end”) sounds like קָיִץ ( qayits , “summer fruit”). The summer fruit arrived toward the end of Israel’s agricultural year; Israel’s national existence was similarly at an end.


Heb “I will no longer pass over him.”


Or “palace” (NASB, NCV, TEV).


Heb “Many corpses in every place he will throw out.” The subject of the verb is probably impersonal, though many emend the active (Hiphil) form to a passive (Hophal): “Many corpses in every place will be thrown out.”


See the note on the word “trample” in 2:7 .


Or “put an end to”; or “exterminate.”


Heb “pass by.”


The verb, though omitted in the Hebrew text, is supplied in the translation from the parallel line.


Heb “sell grain.” Here “grain” could stand by metonymy for the bins where it was stored.


Here and in v. 6 the words “we’re eager” are supplied in the translation for clarification.


Heb “to make small the ephah and to make great the shekel.” The “ephah” was a unit of dry measure used to determine the quantity purchased, while the “shekel” was a standard weight used to determine the purchase price. By using a smaller than standard ephah and a heavier than standard shekel, these merchants were able to increase their profit (“sell less for a higher price”) by cheating the buyer.


Heb “and to cheat with deceptive scales”; NASB, NIV “dishonest scales”; NRSV “false balances.” sn Rigged scales may refer to bending the crossbar or shifting the center point of the scales to make the amount weighed appear heavier than it actually was, thus cheating the buyer.


Heb “to buy the poor for silver.” sn The expression trade silver for the poor refers to the slave trade.


See the note on the word “sandals” in 2:6 .


Heb “The chaff of the grain we will sell.”


Or “swears.”


The words “I swear” are not in the Hebrew text, but have been supplied in the translation because a self-imprecation is assumed in oaths of this type.


Or “I will never forget all your deeds.”


Or “land” (also later in this verse).


It is not clear whether the speaker in this verse is the Lord or the prophet.


Heb “all of it.”


The MT reads “like the light” ( כָאֹר , kha ’ or ; note this term also appears in v. 9 ), which is commonly understood to be an error for “like the Nile” ( כִּיאוֹר , ki ’ or ). See the parallel line and Amos 9:5 . The word “River” is supplied in the translation for clarity. If this emendation is correct, in the Hebrew of Amos “Nile” is actually spelled three slightly different ways. sn The movement of the quaking earth is here compared to the annual flooding and receding of the River Nile .


Or “churn.”


Or “sink back down.” The translation assumes the verb שָׁקַע ( shaqa ’), following the Qere .


The entire verse is phrased in a series of rhetorical questions which anticipate the answer, “Of course!” (For example, the first line reads, “Because of this will the earth not quake?”). The rhetorical questions entrap the listener in the logic of the judgment of God (cf. 3:3-6; 9:7 ). The rhetorical questions have been converted to affirmative statements in the translation for clarity.


Heb “in a day of light.”


Heb “mourning.”


Heb “I will place sackcloth on all waists.” sn Mourners wore sackcloth ( funeral clothes ) as an outward expression of grief.


Heb “and make every head bald.” This could be understood in a variety of ways, while the ritual act of mourning typically involved shaving the head (although occasionally the hair could be torn out as a sign of mourning). sn Shaving the head or tearing out one’s hair was a ritual act of mourning. See Lev 21:5 ; Deut 14:1 ; Isa 3:24; 15:2 ; Jer 47:5; 48:37 ; Ezek 7:18; 27:31 ; Mic 1:16 .


Heb “I will make it like the mourning for an only son.”


Heb “and its end will be like a bitter day.” The Hebrew preposition כְּ ( kaf ) sometimes carries the force of “in every respect,” indicating identity rather than mere comparison.


Heb “behold” or “look.”


Heb “the days are.”


Heb “not a hunger for food or a thirst for water, but for hearing the words of the Lord .”


Heb “they”; the referent (people) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


That is, from the Mediterranean Sea in the west to the Dead Sea in the east – that is, across the whole land.


Heb “looking for the word of.”


Heb “the.”


Or “virgins.”


Heb “those who swear.”


Heb “the sin [or “guilt”] of Samaria.” This could be a derogatory reference to an idol-goddess popular in the northern kingdom, perhaps Asherah (cf. 2 Chr 24:18 , where this worship is labeled “their guilt”), or to the golden calf at the national sanctuary in Bethel ( Hos 8:6, 10:8 ). Some English versions (e.g., NEB, NRSV, CEV) repoint the word and read “Ashimah,” the name of a goddess worshiped in Hamath in Syria (see 2 Kgs 17:30 ).


Heb “say.”


The MT reads, “As surely as the way [to] Beer Sheba lives,” or “As surely as the way lives, O Beer Sheba.” Perhaps the term דֶּרֶךְ ( derekh , “the way”) refers to the pilgrimage route to Beersheba (see S. M. Paul, Amos [Hermeneia], 272) or it may be a title for a god. The notion of pilgrimage appears elsewhere in the book (cf. 4:4-5; 5:4-5; 8:12 ). The translation above assumes an emendation to דֹּדְךְ ( dodÿkh , “your beloved” or “relative”; the term also is used in 6:10 ) and understands this as referring either to the Lord (since other kinship terms are used of him, such as “Father”) or to another deity that was particularly popular in Beer Sheba. Besides the commentaries, see S. M. Olyan, “The Oaths of Amos 8:14 ” Priesthood and Cult in Ancient Israel , 121-49.


Or “the Lord.” The Hebrew term translated “sovereign One” here is אֲדֹנָי (’ adonay ).


Or “the capitals.” The Hebrew singular form is collective.


Heb “cut them off on the head of all of them.” The translation assumes the objective suffix on the verb refers to the tops of the pillars and that the following prepositional phrase refers to the people standing beneath. Another option is to take this phrase as referring to the pillars, in which case one could translate, “Knock all the tops of the pillars off.”


Heb “the remnant of them.” One could possibly translate, “every last one of them” (cf. NEB “to the last man”). This probably refers to those who survive the collapse of the temple, which may symbolize the northern kingdom.


Heb “a fugitive belonging to them will not run away.”


Heb “a survivor belonging to them will not escape.”


Heb “into Sheol” (so ASV, NASB, NRSV), that is, the land of the dead localized in Hebrew thought in the earth’s core or the grave. Cf. KJV “hell”; NCV, NLT “the place of the dead”; NIV “the depths of the grave.”


Heb “from before my eyes.”


Or perhaps simply, “there,” if the מ ( mem ) prefixed to the adverb is dittographic (note the preceding word ends in mem ).


Heb “Even if they go into captivity before their enemies.”


Heb “I will set my eye on them for disaster, not good.”


The words “will do this” are supplied in the translation for clarification.


Or “melts.” The verb probably depicts earthquakes and landslides. See v. 5 b.


Heb “all of it.”


Heb “the Nile.” The word “River” is supplied in the translation for clarity.


Or “sinks back down.”


The MT reads “his steps.” If this is correct, then the reference may be to the steps leading up to the heavenly temple or the throne of God (cf. 1 Kgs 10:19-20 ). The prefixed מ ( mem ) may be dittographic (note the preceding word ends in mem ). The translation assumes an emendation to עֲלִיָּתוֹ (’ aliyyato , “his upper rooms”).


Traditionally, “vault” (so ASV, NAB, NRSV). The precise meaning of this word in this context is unclear. Elsewhere it refers to objects grouped or held together. F. I. Andersen and D. N. Freedman ( Amos [AB], 845-46) suggest the foundational structure of a building is in view.


The Hebrew text has a rhetorical question, “Are you children of Israel not like the Cushites to me?” The rhetorical question has been converted to an affirmative statement in the translation for clarity. See the comment at 8:8 . sn Though Israel was God’s special covenant people (see 3:2 a), the Lord emphasizes they are not inherently superior to the other nations subject to his sovereign rule.


The second half of v. 7 is also phrased as a rhetorical question in the Hebrew text, “Did I not bring Israel up from the land of Egypt, and the Philistines from Caphtor, and Aram from Kir?” The translation converts the rhetorical question into an affirmation for clarity.


Heb “the eyes of the sovereign Lord are on.”


Or “kingdom.”


Heb “house” (also in the following verse).


Heb “like being shaken with a sieve, and a pebble does not fall to the ground.” The meaning of the Hebrew word צְרוֹר ( tsÿror ), translated “pebble,” is unclear here. In 2 Sam 17:13 it appears to refer to a stone. If it means “pebble,” then the sieve described in v. 6 allows the grain to fall into a basket while retaining the debris and pebbles. However, if one interprets צְרוֹר as a “kernel of grain” (cf. NASB, NIV, NKJV, NLT) then the sieve is constructed to retain the grain and allow the refuse and pebbles to fall to the ground. In either case, the simile supports the last statement in v. 8 by making it clear that God will distinguish between the righteous (the grain) and the wicked (the pebbles) when he judges, and will thereby preserve a remnant in Israel. Only the sinners will be destroyed (v. 10 ).


The phrase translated “collapsing hut” refers to a temporary shelter (cf. NASB, NRSV “booth”) in disrepair and emphasizes the relatively weakened condition of the once powerful Davidic dynasty. Others have suggested that the term refers to Jerusalem, while still others argue that it should be repointed to read “Sukkoth,” a garrison town in Transjordan. Its reconstruction would symbolize the rebirth of the Davidic empire and its return to power (e.g., M. E. Polley, Amos and the Davidic Empire , 71-74).


The MT reads a third feminine plural suffix, which could refer to the two kingdoms (Judah and Israel) or, more literally, to the breaches in the walls of the cities that are mentioned in v. 4 (cf. 4:3 ). Some emend to third feminine singular, since the “hut” of the preceding line (a feminine singular noun) might be the antecedent. In that case, the final nun ( ן ) is virtually dittographic with the vav ( ו ) that appears at the beginning of the following word.


The MT reads a third masculine singular suffix, which could refer back to David. However, it is possible that an original third feminine singular suffix ( יה -, yod-hey ) has been misread as masculine ( יו -, yod-vav ). In later Hebrew script a ה ( he ) resembles a יו - ( yod-vav ) combination.


Heb “and I will rebuild as in days of antiquity.”


Heb “take possession of the remnant of Edom”; NASB, NIV, NRSV “possess the remnant of Edom.”


Heb “nations over whom my name is proclaimed.” The Hebrew idiom indicates ownership, sometimes as a result of conquest. See 2 Sam 12:28 . sn This verse envisions a new era of Israelite rule, perhaps patterned after David’s imperialistic successes (see 2 Sam 8-10 ). At the same time, however, the verse does not specify how this rule is to be accomplished. Note that the book ends with a description of peace and abundance, and its final reference to God (v. 15 ) does not include the epithet “the Lord who commands armies,” which has militaristic overtones. This is quite a different scene than what the book began with: nations at war and standing under the judgment of God.


Heb “behold” or “look.”


Heb “the days are.”


The verb is omitted here in the Hebrew text, but has been supplied in the translation from the parallel line.


Or “hills,” where the vineyards were planted.


Heb “and all the hills will melt.”


This line can also be translated “I will restore the fortunes of my people, Israel” and is a common idiom (e.g., Deut 30:3 ; Jer 30:3 ; Hos 6:11 ; Zeph 3:20 ). This rendering is followed by several modern English versions (e.g., NEB, NRSV, NJPS).


Or “the ruined [or “desolate”] cities.”


Or “and live [in them].”


Heb “drink their wine.”


Or “gardens.”


Heb “eat their fruit.”


Heb “their.” The pronoun was replaced by the English definite article in the translation for stylistic reasons.


Heb “the vision of Obadiah” (so KJV, NAB, NASB, NIV, NRSV); TEV “This is the prophecy of Obadiah.”


Heb “Lord Lord. ” The phrase אֲדֹנָי יְהוִה (’ adonay yÿhvih ) is customarily rendered by Jewish tradition as “Lord God .” Cf. NIV, TEV, NLT “Sovereign Lord.”


The Hebrew preposition לְ ( lÿ ) is better translated here “concerning” (so KJV, ASV, NASB, NRSV, NLT) or “about” (so NIV, NCV, TEV, CEV) Edom rather than “to” Edom, although much of the book does speak directly to Edom.


Although the word “saying” is not in the Hebrew text, it has been supplied in the translation because what follows seems to be the content of the envoy’s message. Cf. ASV, NASB, NCV, all of which supply “saying”; NIV, NLT “to say.”


Heb “Arise, and let us arise against her in battle!” The term “Edom” is not in the Hebrew text, but has been supplied in the translation to specify the otherwise ambiguous referent of the term “her.”


The introductory phrase “the Lord says” is not in the Hebrew text, but has been supplied in the translation to clarify the identity of the speaker.


The Hebrew perfect verb form used here usually describes past events. However, here and several times in the following verses it is best understood as portraying certain fulfillment of events that at the time of writing were still future . It is the perfect of certitude. See GKC 312-13 §106. n ; Joüon 2:363 §112.h.


Heb “the presumption of your heart”; NAB, NIV “the pride of your heart”; NASB “arrogance of your heart.”


Heb “in the concealed places of the rock”; KJV, NAB, NASB, NIV, NRSV “in the clefts of the rock”; NCV “the hollow places of the cliff”; CEV “a mountain fortress.” sn The word rock in Hebrew ( סֶלַע , sela ’) is a wordplay on Sela, the name of a prominent Edomite city. Its impregnability was a cause for arrogance on the part of its ancient inhabitants.


Heb “on high (is) his dwelling”; NASB “in the loftiness of your dwelling place”; NRSV “whose dwelling (abode NAB) is in the heights.”


Heb “the one who says in his heart.”


The Hebrew imperfect verb used here is best understood in a modal sense (“Who can bring me down?”) rather than in the sense of a simple future (“Who will bring me down?”). So also in v. 4 (“I can bring you down”). The question is not so much whether this will happen at some time in the future, but whether it even lies in the realm of possible events. In their hubris the Edomites were boasting that no one had the capability of breaching their impregnable defenses. However, their pride caused them to fail to consider the vast capabilities of Yahweh as warrior.


Heb “Who can bring me down?” This rhetorical question implies a negative answer: “No one!”


The present translation follows the reading תָּשִׂים ( tasim ; active) rather than שִׁים ( sim ; passive) of the MT (“and your nest be set among the stars,” NAB). Cf. LXX, Syriac, Vg.


Heb “If thieves came to you, or if plunderers of the night” (NRSV similar). The repetition here adds rhetorical emphasis.


Heb “Would they not have stolen only their sufficiency?” The rhetorical question is used to make an emphatic assertion, which is perhaps best represented by the indicative form in the translation.


Heb “If grape pickers came to you.” The phrase “to harvest your vineyards” does not appear in the Hebrew, but is supplied in the translation to clarify the point of the entire simile which is assumed.


Heb “Would they not have left some gleanings?” The rhetorical question makes an emphatic assertion, which for the sake of clarity is represented by the indicative form in the translation. The implied answer to these rhetorical questions is “yes.” The fact that something would have remained after the imagined acts of theft or harvest stands in stark contrast to the totality of Edom’s destruction as predicted by Obadiah. Edom will be so decimated as a result of God’s judgment that nothing at all will be left sn According to the Mosaic law, harvesters were required to leave some grain behind in the fields for the poor ( Lev 19:9; 23:22 ; see also ); there was a similar practice with grapes and olives ( Lev 19:10 ; Deut 24:21 ). Regarding gleanings left behind from grapes, see Judg 8:2 ; Jer 6:9; 49:9 ; Mic 7:1 .