Heb “ and the palace melts.” The Niphal perfect נָמוֹג ( namog , “is undulated”) from מוּג ( mug , “to melt, to soften, to dissolve”) is sometimes used of material objects (earth, hills) being softened or eroded by water ( Ps 65:11 ; Amos 9:13 ). Nahum pictures the river banks inside Nineveh overflowing in a torrent, crashing into the royal palace and eroding its limestone slab foundations. sn Ironically, a few decades earlier, Sennacherib engaged in a program of flood control because the Tebiltu River often flooded its banks inside Nineveh and undermined the palace foundations. Sennacherib also had to strengthen the foundations of his palace with “mighty slabs of limestone” so that “its foundation would not be weakened by the flood of high water” (D. D. Luckenbill, Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylon , 99-100). At the time of the fall of Nineveh, the Palace of Ashurbanipal was located on the edge of the sharpest bend of the Khoser River as it flowed through the city; when the Khoser overflowed its banks, the palace foundation was weakened (J. Reade, “Studies in Assyrian Geography, Part I: Sennacherib and the Waters of Nineveh,” RA 72 [1978]: 51).


Or “the palace collapses and crumbles.” The Hophal perfect 3rd person masculine singular וְהֻצַּב ( vÿhutsav ) is from either I נָצַב (“to stand”; HALOT 715 s.v. I נצב ; BDB 662 s.v. נָצַב ) or II נָצַב (“to dissolve, weaken”; HALOT 715 s.v. II נצב ). Many scholars who take וְהֻצַּב from I נָצָב (“to stand”) suggest that the meaning is “it is fixed; it is determined” (BDB 662 s.v. נָצַב ). This is followed by several English versions: “it is decreed” (NIV, NRSV) and “it is fixed” (NASB). This is a rather awkward idea and does not seem to fit the context of the description of the destruction of the palace or the exile of the Ninevites. On the other hand, several scholars suggest that וְהֻצַּב is derived from נָצָב II (“to be weak”; cf. Ps 39:6 ; Zech 11:16 ;) which is related to Arabic nasiba (“to be weak”) or Arabic nasaba (“to suck out, to dissolve”) and Assyrian nasabu (“to suck out”); see W. H. F. Saggs, “Nahum and the Fall of Nineveh,” JTS 20 (1969): 220-21; R. D. Patterson, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah (WEC), 69-70. As a parallel word to נָמוֹג ( namog , “is deluged” or “melts”), וְהֻצַּב (“is weakened” or “is dissolved”) describes the destructive effect of the flood waters on the limestone foundations of the palace. The verse divisions in the MT place וְהֻצַּב at the beginning of v. 7 ET [v. 8 HT]; however, it probably should be placed at the end of v. 6 ET [v. 7 HT] and connected with the last two words of the line: וְהַהֵיכָל נָמוֹג וְהֻצַּב ( vÿhahekhal namog vÿhutsav , “the palace is deluged and dissolved”; see Patterson, 69-70). This is supported by several factors: (1) the gender of וְהֻצַּב is masculine, while the verbs in v. 7 are feminine: גֻּלְּתָה הֹעֲלָתָה ( gullÿtah ho ’ alatah , “she is led into exile and taken away”); (2) the gender of the final verb in v. 6 is masculine: נָמוֹג (“[the palace] is deluged”); (3) both וְהֻצַּב and נָמוֹג are passive verbs (Niphal and Hophal); (4) both נָמוֹג (“is deluged”) and וְהֻצַּב (“is dissolved/weakened”) are parallel in meaning, describing the effects of flood waters on the limestone foundation of the royal palace; (5) this redivision of the lines produces a balanced 3+3 and 2+2 colon count in these two lines; and (6) this produces a balance of two verbs each in each colon. The meaning of וְהֻצַּב is notoriously difficult. Scholars offer over a dozen different proposals but only the most important are summarized here: (1) Most scholars take וְהֻצַּב as Hophal perfect 3rd person masculine singular with vav ( ו ) conjunction from I נָצַב (“to stand”), meaning “it is fixed; it is determined” (BDB 662 s.v. נָצַב ). This is followed by several English versions: “it is decreed” (NIV, NRSV) and “it is fixed” (NASB). The LXX translation καὶ ἡ ὑπόστασις ( kai Jh Jupostasi" , “and the foundation”) reflects a reading of וְהֻצַּב with a meaning similar to its use in Gen 28:12 (“a stairway resting on the earth”) or a reading of וְהַמַּצָּב ( vÿhammatsav ) from the noun מַצָּב ( matsav , “place of standing”; cf. BDB 662 s.v. מַצָּב ; HALOT 620 s.v. מַצָּב ). (2) The BHS editors suggest emending to Hophal perfect 3rd person feminine singular וְהֻצְאָה ( vÿhuts ’ ah ) from יָצָא ( yatsa ’, “to go out”), meaning “she is led out into exile” or “she is led out to be executed” ( HALOT 427 s.v. יצא ; see, e.g., Gen 38:25 ; Jer 38:22 ; Ezek 14:22; 38:8; 44:5 ; Amos 4:3 ). (3) Early Jewish interpreters (Targum Jonathan, Kimchi, Rashi) and modern Christian interpreters (e.g., W. A. Maier, Nahum , 259-62) view וְהֻצַּב as the proper name of an Assyrian queen, “Huzzab.” This is adopted by several English versions: “And Huzzab is exiled” (KJV, RV, NJPS). However, this view has been severely criticized by several scholars because no queen in Assyrian history is known by this name (G. R. Driver, “Farewell to Queen Huzzab!” JTS 16 [1965]: 296-98; W. H. F. Saggs, “Nahum and the Fall of Nineveh,” JTS 20 [1969]: 220). (4) Several scholars suggest that וְהֻצַּב is the Hophal perfect of II נָצַב which is related to Assyrian nasabu (“to suck out”) and Arabic nasaba (“to suck out; to dissolve”), as in Ps 39:6 and Zech 11:16 . Taking גֻּלְּתָה ( gullÿtah ) as the noun “column-base” (see translator’s note on the word “exile” in this verse), Saggs translates the line as: “its column-base is dissolved” (W. H. F. Saggs, “Nahum and the Fall of Nineveh,” JTS 20 [1969]: 220-21). Patterson connects it to the last two words of the previous line: וְהַהֵיכָל נָמוֹג וְהֻצַּב , “The palace collapses and crumbles” (Patterson, 69-70). (5) Driver revocalizes it as the noun וְהַצֹּב (“and the [captive] train”) which he relates to the Arabic noun sub (“train”): “the train of captives goes into exile” (so NEB). This is reflected in the Greek text of the Minor Prophets from Nahal Heber which took וְהֻצַּב as “wagon, chariot.” (6) Cathcart suggests that the MT’s וְהֻצַּב may be repointed as וְהַצַּב which is related to Assyrian hassabu (“goddess”). (7) Several scholars emend to וְהַצְּבִי ( vÿhatsÿvi , “the Beauty”) from צְבִי ( tsÿvi , “beauty”) and take this as a reference to the statue of Ishtar in Nineveh (K. J. Cathcart, Nahum in the Light of Northwest Semitic [BibOr], 96-98; M. Delcor, “Allusions à la déesse Istar en Nahum 2,8 ?” Bib 58 [1977]: 73-83; T. Longman, “Nahum,” The Minor Prophets , 2:806). (8) R. L. Smith ( Micah-Malachi [WBC], 82) derives consonantal והצב from נְצִיב ( nitsiv , “pillar”; HALOT 716-17 s.v. נְצִיב ) which is related to Assyrian nisibi which refers to the statue of a goddess.


The term “Nineveh” is not in the Hebrew text, but is supplied from context.


The MT reads the Pual perfect 3rd person feminine singular גֻּלְּתָה ( gullÿtah ) from גָלָה ( galah , “to uncover, to go into exile”; BDB 162-63 s.v. גָלָה ; HALOT 191-92 s.v. גלה ). There are two basic views of the meaning of גֻּלְּתָה in this verse: (1) “She is stripped” (see R. L. Smith, Micah-Malachi [WBC], 81). This may describe the exposure of the foundation of a building ( Ezek 13:14 ) or the uncovering of intimate parts of the body ( Exod 20:26 ; Isa 47:3 ; Ezek 16:36, 57; 23:29 ;). This is reflected in the LXX reading ἀπεκαλύφθη ( apekalufqh , “she has been exposed”). This approach is followed by NASB (“she is stripped”). (2) “She is taken into exile” (KJV, NIV, NRSV, NJPS). The Qal stem of גָלָה often means “to go into exile” ( Judg 18:30 ; 2 Kgs 24:14 ; Isa 5:13; 49:21 ; Jer 1:3 ; Ezek 39:23 ; Amos 1:5; 5:5; 6:7 ; Lam 1:3 ); the Hiphil often means “to deport exiles” ( 2 Kgs 15:20; 16:9; 17:6, 11, 26, 28, 33; 18:11; 24:14-15; 25:11 ; Jer 20:4; 22:12; 24:1; 27:20; 29:1, 4, 7, 14; 39:9; 43:3; 52:15, 28, 30 ; Ezek 39:28 ; Amos 1:6; 5:27 ; Lam 4:22 ; Esth 2:6 ; Ezra 2:1 ; Neh 7:6 ; 1 Chr 5:6, 26, 41; 8:6 ; 2 Chr 36:20 ); and the Hophal stem always means “to be deported; to be taken into exile” ( Jer 40:1, 7 ; Esth 2:6 ; 1 Chr 9:1 ). This makes the best sense in the light of the parallel verb הֹעֲלָתָה ( ho ’ alatah , “she is led away”) in v. 7 [8 HT] and the description of the fleeing Ninevites in v. 8 [9 HT]. The BHS editors and HALOT suggest that consonantal גלתה be vocalized as Qal perfect 3rd person feminine singular גָּלְתָה ( goltah , “she goes into exile”) from גָלָה (Qal: “go into exile”). R. D. Patterson suggests vocalizing consonantal גלתה as the noun with 3rd person feminine singular suffix גָּלְתָהּ for גּוֹלְתָהּ ( goltah , “her exiles/captives”) and taking the singular form as collective in meaning: “her exiles/captives are carried away” ( Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah [WEC], 70). W. H. F. Saggs suggests that גֻלְּתָה is the noun גֻּלָּה ( gullah , “column-base”) as in 1 Kgs 7:41-42 ; 2 Chr 4:12-13 (BDB 165 s.v. גֻּלָּה 2.b; HALOT 192 s.v. גֻּלָּה 1.b) which is related to Assyrian gullatu (“column-base”; CAD 5:128). He renders the phrase וְהֻצַּב גֻּלְּתָה ( vÿhutsav gullÿtah ) as “its column-base[s] is/are dissolved” (see above). He suggests that this provides an excellent parallel to “the palace begins to melt” ( וְהַהֵיכָל נָמוֹג , vÿhahekhal namog ). W. H. F. Saggs also proposes that the LXX reflects this picture (“Nahum and the Fall of Nineveh,” JTS 20 [1969]: 220-25).


Or “And its column-bases collapse and it goes up [in smoke].” The MT reads the Hophal perfect 3rd person feminine singular הֹעֲלָתָה ( ho ’ alatah , “she is carried away”) from עָלָה (’ alah , “to go up”). The Hiphil stem of עָלָה often describes a military commander leading a group of forced workers out of a town ( 1 Kgs 5:13 [HT 5:27]; 9:15, 21 ; 2 Chr 8:8 ); likewise, the Hophal stem may denote “to be led away into exile” ( HALOT 830 s.v.; BDB 748 s.v. עָלָה ).


The MT reads the Piel participle מְנַהֲגוֹת ( mÿnahagot , “sobbing, moaning”) from II נָהַג (“to moan, to lament”; HALOT 675 s.v.; BDB 624 s.v. II נָהַג ). This root is related to Assyrian nagagu (“to cry”; AHw 2:709.b). This harmonizes well with the following cola: “Her maidservants moan like doves, they beat upon their breasts.” This is adopted by several English versions (NASB, NIV, NRSV). On the other hand, an alternate vocalization tradition (represented by several Hebrew mss , Targum Jonathan, LXX, and Vulgate) reads the Pual participle מְנֹהֲגוֹת ( mÿnohagot , “forcibly removed”) from the more common root I נַהַג (“to drive away, to lead away”; HALOT 675 s.v. נהג ). This root is often used of conquerors leading away exiles or prisoners of war ( Gen 31:26 ; Deut 4:27; 28:37 ; Isa 20:4 ; Lam 3:2 ). This picture is clearly seen in the LXX reading καὶ αἱ δοῦλαι αὐτῆς ἤγοντο ( kai Jai doulai auth" hjgonto , “and her maidservants were led away”). This textual tradition harmonizes with the imagery of exile in the preceding colon (see translator’s note on the word “exile” in this verse). This approach is adopted by several English versions (KJV, NJPS). tn Or “her maidservants are led away [into exile].”


Heb “like the sound of doves.”


The Poel participle מְתֹפְפֹת ( mÿtofÿfot , “beating continuously”) is from תָפַף (“to beat”; HALOT 1037-38 s.v. תֹּף ; BDB 1074 s.v. תָּפַף ). Elsewhere it is used of beating timbrels ( Ps 68:26 ; 1 Sam 21:14 ). The participle describes a circumstance accompanying the main action (“her maidservants moan”) and functions in a continual, repetitive manner (see IBHS 625-26 §37.6; R. J. Williams, Hebrew Syntax , 43, §221).


The MT reads מְתֹפְפֹת עַל־לִבְבֵהֶן ( mÿtofÿfot ’ al-livvehen , “beating upon their hearts [= breasts]”). The LXX reading φθεγγόμεναι ἐν καρδίαις αὐτῶν ( fqengomenai en kardiai" autwn , “moaning in their hearts”) reflects either an alternate textual tradition or simple textual confusion. The Greek participle φθεγγόμεναι seems to reflect either: (1) the Qal participle הֹגוֹת ( hogot ) from הָגָה ( hagah , “to moan”) as reflected in Targum Jonathan and Vulgate or (2) the Poel participle מְנֹהֲגוֹת ( mÿnohagot , “moaning”) from II נָהַג (“to moan”) which appears in the previous line, pointing to a transposition of words between the two lines. tn Heb “upon their heart.” The term “their heart” ( לִבְבֵהֶן , livvehen ) is a figure of speech (synecdoche of the inner organ for the outer body part) representing their breasts/chests (e.g., Dan 4:16 [13]; see HALOT 516 s.v. לֵבָב ; BDB 523 s.v. לֵבָב II.1). The singular noun is used collectively for all the maidservants as a whole, as the plural suffix indicates (see IBHS 113 §7.2.1; R. J. Williams, Hebrew Syntax , 7, §2).


The term “pool” ( בְּרֵכָה , bÿrekhah ) usually refers to a man-made artificial water reservoir fed by water aqueducts rather than to a natural pond ( HALOT 161 s.v.). For example, it is used in reference to man-made water reservoirs for the royal gardens ( Eccl 2:6 ; Neh 2:14 ); man-made water reservoirs in Jerusalem, some of which were fed by aqueducts ( 2 Kgs 18:17; 20:20 ; Isa 7:3; 22:9, 11; 36:2 ; Neh 3:15, 16 ); the pool of Gibeon ( 2 Sam 2:13 ); the pool of Hebron ( 2 Sam 4:12 ); the pool of Samaria ( 1 Kgs 22:38 ); and the pools of Heshbon ( Song 7:5 ). The pool of Siloam, built by Hezekiah and fed by the underground aqueduct known as Hezekiah’s Tunnel, is designated by the term בְּרֵכָה in 2 Kgs 20:20 and the Siloam Inscription (line 5). sn Nineveh was like a pool of water . This is an appropriate simile because Nineveh was famous for its artificial pools, many of which serviced the royal gardens. Two rivers also flowed through the city: the Tebiltu and the Khoser.


Or “Nineveh [is] like a pool of water.” Either a present tense or a past tense verb may be supplied.


The MT reads מִימֵי הִיא ( mime hi ’, “from her days”). The form מִימֵי is composed of the assimilated preposition מִן ( min , “from”) prefixed to the plural construct of יוֹם ( yom , “day”; see HALOT 399 s.v. יוֹם ). The preposition מִן is used temporally, marking the beginning of a continuous period (“since, from”; see HALOT 597 s.v. מִן 2; BDB 581 s.v. מִן 4.a). Several scholars suggest that the third-person independent pronoun הִיא ( hi ’) functions as a possessive genitive (“her”), a usage attested in Ugaritic, Akkadian, and elsewhere in Hebrew ( 2 Kgs 9:18 ; Isa 18:2 ; Nah 2:12 ). See K. J. Cathcart, Nahum in the Light of Northwest Semitic (BibOr), 100-101; IBHS 291 §16.2 n. 9; T. Longman, “Nahum,” The Minor Prophets , 2:807. The plural of יוֹם (“day”) here denotes “lifetime” ( HALOT 400 s.v. יוֹם 6.c). The phrase מִימֵי הִיא probably means “from the beginning of her days” or “throughout her days” or “during her lifetime.” This is similar to “from the beginning of your days” or “since your days began” or “as long as you live” ( 1 Sam 25:28 ; Job 38:12 ; see HALOT 400 s.v. יוֹם 6.c; 597 s.v. מִן 2.a; BDB 581 s.v. מִן 4.a). Several English versions adopt this: “throughout her days” (NASB), “from earliest times” (NJPS), and “[Nineveh] of old” (KJV). In contrast to the Masoretic vocalization, the consonantal text מִימֵי הִיא is rendered “her waters” by the LXX and critical scholars. The reading of the LXX ( τὰ ὕδατα αὐτῆς , ta Judata auth" , “her waters”) reflects the alternate vocalization מֵימֶיהָ ( memeha , “her waters”). The BHS editors suggest emending the MT to מֵימֶיהָ (“her waters”). Saggs suggests that the original form was מֵימֶיהָא ( memeha ’, “her waters”) which he explains thus: מִימֶי is the plural construct of מָיִם ( mayim , “waters”); הָא is the 3rd person feminine singular suffix on the plural noun, as in Ezek 41:15 (GKC 107 §32. l ); the yod ( י ) of Masoretic הִיא ( hi ’) is a secondary matres lectionis inserted into wrongly-divided and misunderstood ־הָא (W. H. F. Saggs, “Nahum and the Fall of Nineveh,” JTS 20 [1969]: 220-25). These alternative approaches are followed by several English versions: “its water is draining away” (NIV); “whose waters run away” (NRSV); and “its waters are fleeing” (NJB). tn Heb “from days of her” or “from her days.”


The translation takes the vav on וְהֵמָּה ( vÿhemmah ) in a temporal sense. This approach is also adopted by NJPS: “Now they flee.”


Heb “they”; the referent (the people of Nineveh) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


Or “fleeing away”; or (maintaining the imagery of the pool of water) “draining away.”


The introductory phrase “she cries out” is not in the Hebrew text, but is supplied in the translation for clarity.


Or “can turn [them] back.” The Hebrew verb ָָפּנַה ( panah , “to turn”) often describes the fearful flight from an attacking enemy army ( Josh 7:12 ; Judg 20:42, 45, 47 ; Jer 46:5, 21; 47:3; 48:39; 49:8, 24 ). Nahum pictures the people of Nineveh fleeing from their attackers; nothing can be done to stop their fearful flight. The Hiphil participle מַפְנֶה ( mafneh ) may be taken in an intransitive ( Jer 46:5, 21; 47:3; 49:24 ) or transitive sense ( Judg 15:4 ; 1 Sam 10:9 ; Jer 48:39 ), i.e., “no one turns back” or “no one can turn [them] back,” respectively (see IBHS 436-43 §27.2).


The phrase “Her conquerors cry out” has been supplied from context.


Heb “Emptiness and devastation and being laid waste.” Several English versions attempt to reproduce the assonance, alliteration, and paronomasia of three similarly sounding Hebrew words: בּוּקַָה וּמְבוּקָה וּמְבֻלָּקָה ( buqah umÿvuqah umÿvullaqah ; NJPS “Desolation, devastation, and destruction!”; NRSV: “Devastation, desolation, and destruction!”). sn Destruction, devastation, and desolation . The feminine form of each of these terms is used, referring to Nineveh (e.g., NASB: “She is emptied! Yes, she is desolate and laid waste!”). Conquered cities are often personified as a desolated woman (e.g., Isa 47:1; 54:1 ).


Heb “and melting heart.”


Heb “and tottering of knees.”


Heb “and shaking in all of the loins.”


Or “What has become of the den of the lions?”


The Masoretic form וּמִרְעֶה ( umir ’ eh , “the feeding ground”) is supported by the Dead Sea Scrolls: ומרעה (4QpNah). It is also reflected in the LXX reading ἡ νομή ( Je nomh , “the pasture”). The BHS editors suggest emending to וּמְעָרָה ( umÿ ’ arah , “the cave”), which involves the metathesis of ר ( resh ) and ע ( ayin ). This proposed emendation is designed to create a tighter parallelism with מְעוֹן ( mÿ ’ on , “the den”) in the preceding line. However, this emendation has no textual support and conflicts with the grammar of the rest of the line: the feminine noun וּמְעָרָה ( umÿ ’ arah , “the cave”) would demand a feminine independent pronoun instead of the masculine independent pronoun הוּא which follows. Nevertheless, several English versions adopt the emendation (NJB, NEB, RSV, NRSV), while others follow the reading of the MT (KJV, NASB, NIV, NJPS).


Alternately, “the lion…[once] prowled there.” The construction שָׁם … אֲשֶׁר (’ asher...sham ) denotes “where…there” (BDB 81 s.v. אֲשֶׁר ). This locative construction is approximately reflected in the LXX interrogative ποῦ ( pou , “where?”).


The meaning of the term לָבִיא ( lavi ’) is debated. There are three basic approaches: (1) The MT reads לָבִיא , which is supported by the Dead Sea Scrolls (4QpNah) which preserves the consonantal form לביא (see DJD 5:38). Most English versions render לָבִיא as “lioness,” the parallel term for אַרְיֵה (’ aryeh , “lion”); so RSV, NASB, NIV, NJPS; in contrast, KJV has “old lion.” Indeed, the noun לָבִיא (“lioness” or “lion”; BDB 522 s.v. לָבִיא ) occurs frequently in poetic texts ( Gen 49:9 ; Num 23:24; 24:9 ; Deut 33:20 ; Isa 5:29; 30:6 ; Joel 1:6 ; Job 4:11; 38:39 ). The problem is the absence of a vav ( ו ) conjunction between the two nouns and the presence of a singular rather than plural verb: הָלַךְ אַרְיֵה לָבִיא ( halakh ’ aryeh lavi ’, “lion [and] lioness prowled”). Furthermore, the term for “lioness” in the following verse is not לָבִיא but לִבְאָה ( liv ’ ah ; see HALOT 515 s.v. * לִבְאָה ; BDB 522 s.v. לָבִיא ). (2) Due to the grammatical, syntactical, and lexical difficulties of the previous approach, several scholars propose that the MT’s לָבִיא is a Hiphil infinitive construct form shortened from לְהָבִיא ( lÿhavi ’, “to bring”); cf. Jer 27:7; 39:7 ; 2 Chr 31:10 ; HALOT 114 s.v. בוא . Because the Hiphil of בּוֹא ( bo ’) can depict an animal bringing food to its dependents (cf. 1 Kgs 17:6 ), they treat the line thus: “where the lion prowled to bring [food]” (Ehrlich, Haldar, Maier). The Dead Sea Scrolls (4QpNah) reading לביא does not solve the problem because the pesher to this line uses לבוא (“to enter”), and it is not clear whether this is a literal translation or creative word-play: “Its pesher concerns Demetrius, king of Greece, who sought to enter ( לבוא ) Jerusalem” (, line 4). (3) The LXX translation τοῦ εἰσελθεῖν ( tou eiselqein , “would enter”) seems to have confused the consonantal form לביא with לבוא which it viewed as Qal infinitive construct לָבוֹא from בּוֹא (“to enter”). This approach is followed by at least one modern translation: “where the lion goes” (NRSV).


The verb הָלַךְ ( halakh , “to go, to walk”) is occasionally used of animals ( 1 Sam 6:12 ). Here it is nuanced “prowled” in the light of the hunting or stalking imagery in vv. 12-13 .


The term נְאֻם ( nÿ ’ um ) is a fixed formulaic term meaning “oracle” ( Isa 14:22-23; 17:3; 22:25 ; Jer 8:3; 25:29; 31:38; 49:26 ; Zech 13:2, 7 ).


Traditionally, “the Lord of hosts.” The title pictures God as the sovereign king who has at his disposal a multitude of attendants, messengers, and warriors to do his bidding. In some contexts, like this one, the military dimension of his rulership is highlighted. In this case, the title pictures him as one who leads armies into battle against his enemies.


The MT reads the 3rd person feminine singular suffix on a singular noun: רִכְבָּהּ ( rikhbah , “her chariot”). However, the BHS editors suggest emending to the 2nd person feminine singular suffix on a plural noun: רִכְבֵּךְ ( rikhbekh , “your chariots”) due to the use of 2nd person feminine singular suffixes throughout this verse and the anomaly of the singular noun. On the other hand, the Dead Sea Scrolls (4QpNah) read רובכה (“your abundance”) which is the plene spelling of רֹבְכָה ( rovÿkhah ). This reflects the transposition (metathesis) of כ ( kaf ) and ב ( bet ) in the consonantal forms רכבה and רבכה . The textual tradition attested at Qumran is reflected in the LXX’s πλῆθος σου ( plhqo" sou , “your abundance”) which reflects a reading of רֹבְכָה (“your abundance”) as well. It should be noted that the plene form of the 2nd person feminine singular suffix appears elsewhere in the MT of this verse: מַלְאָכֵכֵה ( mal ’ akhekheh , “your messenger”). Although there is good evidence for the alternate traditions, the MT reading may be retained for three reasons: (1) The burning of enemy chariots was a common threat in ancient Near Eastern warfare (see D. R. Hillers, Treaty-Curses and the Old Testament Prophets , 60; K. J. Cathcart, “Treaty-Curses and the Book of Nahum,” CBQ 35 [1973]: 182). (2) The singular רֶכֶב ( rekhev , “chariot”) is often used collectively to refer to all the chariots of a nation ( Exod 14:7 ; Josh 11:4; 24:6 ; Judg 4:7, 13; 5:28 ). (3) The abrupt shift from the 2nd person feminine singular suffix on אֵלַיִךְ (’ elayikh , “I am against you!”) to the 3rd person feminine singular suffix on רִכְבָּהּ (“her chariot”) is an example of a common poetic/stylistic device: heterosis of second to third person (see E. W. Bullinger, Figures of Speech , 525 [4.5]). The 2nd person feminine singular suffix in the translation above is used simply for smooth literary style. This is a good example of how sensitivity to figures of speech, ancient Near Eastern backgrounds, and syntax can prevent unnecessary textual emendations.


Heb “with smoke.” The term “smoke” ( עָשָׁן , ’ ashan ) is a figure of speech (metonymy of effect for the cause) representing the fire which produces the smoke ( Josh 8:19-20 ; Isa 65:5 ; cf. Rev 14:11 ). In the translation this has been replaced with “fire” since most English readers would find the expression “to burn [something] with smoke” unfamiliar.


The MT reads וּכְפִירַיִךְ ( ukhÿfirayikh , “and your young lions”), as reflected by the LXX. The BHS editors emend to וּגִיבֹּרַיִךְ ( ugibborayikh , “and your warriors”); this lacks textual support and is unnecessary. sn The Assyrian warriors are pictured as young lions in Nah 2:11-13 . The Assyrians often pictured themselves with lion imagery (see D. Marcus, “Animal Similes in Assyrian Royal Inscriptions,” Or 46 [1977]: 87).


Heb “I will cut off your prey from the land.”


The MT reading מַלְאָכֵכֵה ( mal ’ akhekheh , “your messengers”) has a very unusual ending: the plural ending of the noun is spelled defectively (short spelling), while the 2nd person feminine singular pronominal suffix is spelled plene (long spelling); see GKC 258 §91. l . It is possible that the final ה ( hey ) is due to dittography with the first letter of the first word of the next verse, הוֹי ( hoy , “Woe!”). On the other hand, the LXX reads τὰ ἔργα σου ( ta erga sou , “your deeds”) which reflects מַלְאֲכַיִךְ ( mal ’ akhayikh , “your deeds”) – a confusion of מַלְאָךְ ( mal ’ akh , “messenger”) for מְלָאכָה ( mÿla ’ khah , “deed”) due to the unusual Hebrew ending here.


Heb “of bloods.” The plural noun דָּמִים ( damim , “bloods”) connotes “bloodshed” or “blood guilt” (BDB 196-97 s.v. דָּם 2.f; HALOT 224-25 s.v. דָּם 5; DCH 2:443-47 s.v. דָּם ). Human blood in its natural state in the body is generally designated by the singular form דָּם ( dam , “blood”); after it has been spilled, the plural form is used to denote the abundance of blood in quantity ( IBHS 119-20 §7.4.1; BDB 196-97 s.v. דָּם 2.f). The plural is often used with the verb שָׁפַךְ ( shafakh , “to spill, to shed”) to connote bloodshed ( Gen 9:6; 37:22 ; Lev 17:4 ; Num 35:33 ; Deut 21:7 ; 1 Sam 25:31 ; 1 Kgs 18:28 ; 2 Kgs 21:16; 24:4 ; 1 Chr 22:8 ; Ezek 16:38; 22:4, 6, 9, 12, 27; 23:45; 33:25; 36:18 ; Prov 1:16 ). The plural often denotes bloodshed ( Gen 4:10 ; 2 Sam 3:27, 28; 16:8; 20:12 ; 1 Kgs 2:5 ; 2 Kgs 9:7, 26, 33 ; 2 Chr 24:25 ; Job 16:18 ; Isa 1:15; 4:4; 9:4; 26:21; 33:15; 34:3, 6, 7 ; Ezek 7:23; 16:6, 9, 36; 21:37; 22:13; 24:8 ; Hos 1:4; 4:2 ; Hab 2:8, 12, 17 ; Mic 3:10 ; Zech 9:7 ) or blood-guilt ( Exod 22:1 ; Lev 20:9 ; Num 35:27 ; Deut 19:10; 22:8 ; Judg 9:24 ; 1 Sam 25:26, 33 ; 2 Sam 21:1 ; Isa 33:15 ; Ezek 9:9 ). The term can refer to murder ( 2 Sam 16:7, 8 ; Pss 5:7; 26:9; 55:24; 59:3; 139:10 ; Prov 29:10 ) or more generally, connote social injustice, cruelty, and oppression ( Deut 21:8, 9 ; 1 Sam 19:5 ; 2 Kgs 21:6; 24:4 ; Pss 94:21; 106:38 ; Prov 6:17 ; Isa 59:7 ; Jer 7:6; 22:3 ; Joel 4:19; Jonah 1:14 ). The term may refer to blood that has been shed in war ( 1 Kgs 2:5 ) and the unnecessary shedding of blood of one’s enemy ( 1 Kgs 2:31 ), which is probably the intended meaning here. The phrase “city of bloodshed” ( עִיר דָּמִים [’ ir damim ], “city of bloods”) is used elsewhere to describe a city held guilty before God of blood-guilt and about to be judged by God ( Ezek 22:2; 24:6 ).


Heb “All of her [is] lying.”


Heb “full of plunder.”


Heb “prey does not depart.”


Heb “the sound of a whip.”


Heb “the shaking of a chariot wheel.”


Heb “a horse.”


Albright argues that the term דֹּהֵר ( doher ) should be translated as “chariot driver” (W. F. Albright, “The Song of Deborah in Light of Archaeology,” BASOR 62 [1936]: 30). More recent research indicates that this term denotes “to dash” ( HALOT 215 s.v.) or “to gallop, neigh” ( DCH 2:417 s.v. דהר I). It is used as a synonym for רָקַד ( raqad , “to skip”). This Hebrew verb is related to Egyptian thr (“to travel by chariot”) and Arabic dahara VII (“to hurry”). The related noun דַּהֲרָה ( daharah ) means “dashing, galloping” ( Judg 5:22 ; HALOT 215 s.v.; DCH 2:417 s.v. דַּהֲרָה I).


Heb “a chariot.”


The Piel participle מְרַקֵּדָה ( mÿraqqedah , “jolting”) is from רַקַד ( raqad ); this verb means “to dance, to leap” (of children, Job 21:11 ), “to skip about, to dance” ( Eccl 3:4 ), and “to leap” (of chariots, Joel 2:5 ). In related Semitic languages (Akkadian, Ugaritic, and Arabic) the root raqad means “to dance, to skip about.” Here, the verb is used as a figurative expression (hypocatastasis) to describe the jostling of the madly rushing war-chariots.


Heb “a horseman.” Although the Hebrew term פָּרָס ( paras , alternately spelled פָּרָשׂ [ paras ] here) could denote “horse” ( 1 Sam 8:11 ; Joel 2:4 ; Hab 1:8 ; Jer 46:4 ), the Hiphil participle מַעֲלֶה ( ma ’ aleh , “cause to charge”) – the subject of which is פָּרָס – suggests that פָּרָס refers here to “horsemen” charging their horses ( 2 Sam 1:6 ; 1 Kgs 20:20 ; Jer 4:29; 46:4 ).


The term מַעֲלֶה ( ma ’ aleh ; the Hiphil participle “cause to charge”) refers to charioteers bringing war-horses up to a charge or attack (e.g., Jer 46:9; 51:27 ). On the other hand, the KJV translates this as “lifteth up [both the bright sword and the glittering sword],” while RV renders it as “mounts [his horse (or chariot)].”


Heb “a sword.”


Heb “flash of a sword.” Alternately, “swords flash.” Although לַהַב ( lahav ) can mean “blade” ( Judg 3:22 ; 1 Sam 17:7 ), it means “flash [of the sword]” here (e.g., Hab 3:11 ; see HALOT 520 s.v.) as suggested by its parallelism with וּבְרַק ( uvÿraq , “flashing, gleaming point [of the spear]”); cf. Job 20:25 ; Deut 32:41 ; Hab 3:11 ; Ezek 21:15 .


Heb “a spear.”


Heb “and flash of a spear.” Alternately, “spears glimmer” ( HALOT 162 s.v. בָּרָק ).


Heb “many slain.”


The MT reads לַגְּוִיָּה ( laggÿviyyah , “to the dead bodies”). The LXX reflects לְגוֹיָה ( lÿgoyah , “to her nations”) which arose due to confusion between the consonant ו ( vav ) and the vowel וֹ ( holem-vav ) in an unpointed text. tn Heb “There is no end to the dead bodies.”


Heb “they.”


The preposition מִן ( min ) on מֵרֹב ( merov ; Heb “from the abundance of harlotries”) is causal: “because of; in consequence of” ( HALOT 598 מִן 6; BDB 579-80 s.v. מִן 2.e). See, e.g., Exod 2:23; 15:23 ; Deut 7:7 ; 2 Sam 3:11, 37 ; Job 22:4 ; Isa 6:4; 43:4; 53:5 ; Ezek 28:5, 18 ; Nah 1:5 ; Zech 2:8 ; see also IBHS 213 §11.2.11.d; R. J. Williams, Hebrew Syntax , 58, §319. The causal sense is supported by the LXX’s ἀπό ( apo , “from, because of”). Most English versions adopt the causal sense (KJV, NASB, NIV, NRSV, NJPS).


Heb “Because of the many harlotries of the harlot.” The MT connects v. 4 with vv. 5-6 ; however, the LXX connects v. 4 with vv. 1-3 . The Masoretic division is followed by NRSV and NJPS; the LXX division is followed by KJV and NIV; and the NASB division equivocates on the issue. It is best to connect v. 4 with vv. 5-6 (following the MT) because: (1) vv. 1-3 constitute a self-contained woe-oracle; and (2) the theme of the harlot unifies vv. 4-6 : the accusation against the harlot (v. 4 ) and the stereotypical punishment of the harlot (vv. 5-6 ).


Heb “fair of form, a mistress of sorceries.”


Heb “she.” This has been translated as a relative pronoun for stylistic reasons. The shift from 2nd person feminine singular (“you”) to 3rd person feminine singular (“she”) is an example of heterosis of persons, a common literary/poetic device used in Hebrew poetry and prophetic literature.


The MT reads the Qal participle הַמֹּכֶרֶת ( hammokheret ) which is derived from מָכַר (makhar , “to sell, to betray”): “the one who sells/betrays [nations].” The MT is supported by the LXX. The Dead Sea Scrolls read הממכרת (4QpNah 2:7 ): “the one who sells/betrays [nations]” (see DJD 5:38). Dahood repoints the MT as a Hophal participle, הַמֻּכֶּרֶת ( hammukkeret ) from נָכַר ( nakhar , “to know, to recognize”): “the one who is known [by the nations for her harlotries]” (M. Dahood, “Causal Beth and the Root NKR in Nahum 3.4 ,” Bib 52 [1971]: 395-96). The BHS editors suggest emending the MT, due to metathesis, to הַכֹּמֶרֶת ( hakkomeret ) from II כמר (“to ensnare”; HALOT 482 s.v. II כמר ) which is related to Assyrian kamaru [A] (“to ensnare”): “The one who ensnares [nations].” The related nouns “snare; net” ( מִכְמָר , mikhmar ) and “net” ( מִכְמֶרֶת , mikhmeret ) are used as metaphors of the wicked destroying their victims ( Ps 141:10 ; Isa 51:20 ; Hab 1:15, 16 ). This approach is adopted by NJPS: “who ensnared nations.” Others suggest emending to the Qal participle הַכֹּמֶרֶת from III כמר (“to destroy, to overthrow”; BDB 485 s.v. III כמר ) related to Assyrian kamaru [B] (“to destroy; to annihilate”): “the one who destroys nations.” The MT may be retained due to strong external support (LXX and 4QpNah) and adequate internal support; the conjectural emendations are unnecessary. tn Heb “sells.” Alternately, “enslaves”; or perhaps “deceives.” Most scholars derive the Qal participle הַמֹּכֶרֶת from מָכַר (“to sell, to betray”): “who sells nations.” When used in reference to people, this verb may denote three things: (1) to sell slaves or prisoners of war ( Exod 21:8 ; Deut 21:14; 24:7 ; Joel 4:3, 6); (2) to sell off someone into the hands of the enemy, that is, to give someone entirely into their power ( Exod 21:7; 22:2 ; Deut 32:30 ; Judg 2:14; 3:8; 4:2; 10:7 ; 1 Sam 12:9 ; Isa 50:1 ; Joel 4:8; Ps 44:13 ); and (3) to betray someone (possibly the meaning here in Nah 3:4 ?); see HALOT 581-82 s.v. I מכר ; BDB 569 s.v. מָכַר . This is related to Assyrian makara (“to carry out trade; to make merchandise of”). Some English versions nuance הַמֹּכֶרֶת as “who sells nations” (KJV, NASB); others nuance it metonymically, “who enslaves nations” (NIV, NRSV). Thomas derives הַמֹּכֶרֶת from II מָכַר (“to deceive, to beguile, to betray”) which is related to Arabic makara (“to betray”): “who deceives the nations” (D. W. Thomas, “The Root mkr in Hebrew,” JTS 37 [1936]: 388-89; idem, “A Further Note on the Root mkr in Hebrew,” JTS 3 [1952]: 214).


Heb “the one who sells nations by her harlotries.”


Heb “and clans by her sorceries.”


Traditionally, “the Lord of hosts.” See the note on the expression “the Lord who commands armies” in 2:13 .


Heb “I will uncover your skirts over your face.” sn Strip off your clothes . In the ancient Near East, the typical punishment for a prostitute was to strip her of her clothes publicly to expose her to open shame, embarrassment, and public ridicule. Because Nineveh had acted like a prostitute, the Lord would punish her as a prostitute.


Heb “detestable things”; KJV, ASV “abominable filth”; NCV “filthy garbage.”


While the MT reads 2nd person feminine singular לָךְ ( lakh , “for you”), the LXX reads αὔτή ( Jauth , “for her”). The Dead Sea Scrolls from Wadi Murabba’at read לך (“for you”). The MT reading is preferred for several reasons: (1) it is supported by the scrolls from Wadi Murabba’at; (2) it is the most difficult reading; and (3) it explains the origin of the LXX which probably harmonized this with the preceding 3rd person feminine singular pronoun. Abrupt switches from third to second person are commonly found in poetic and prophetic literature (e.g., Deut 32:15 ; Isa 5:8 ; Jer 29:19 ; Job 16:7 ) as well as in Northwest Semitic curses (see S. Gevirtz, “West-Semitic Curses and the Problem of the Origins of Hebrew Law,” VT 11 [1961]: 147, n. 4). tn Heb “From whence shall I find comforters for you?”


Heb “Are you better than Thebes?”


Heb “No-Amon.” The name is transliterated by NAB, NASB; many other English versions employ the equivalent “Thebes.”


The relative pronoun אֲשֶׁר (’ asher ) is functioning in a possessive sense: “whose” ( Job 37:17 ; Ps 95:5 ; Isa 5:28; 49:23 ; Jer 31:32 ; see HALOT 98 s.v. 4 ).


The consonantal form חיל is vocalized in the MT as חֵיל ( khel , “rampart”). The LXX translation ἡ ἀρξή ( Jh arxh , “strength”) reflects confusion between the relatively rare חֵיל and the more common חַיִל ( khayil , “strength”); see HALOT 310-12.


Heb “from (the) sea.” The form should be emended to מַיִם ( mayim , “water”). This is a figurative description of the Nile River: It functioned like a fortress wall for Thebes.


Or “Cush was limitless and Egypt was strong.” The NIV treats the two nations (“Cush and Egypt”) as a hendiadys of the predicate and translates them as one clause. On the other hand, NJPS treats them separately and translates them in two different clauses.


Heb “Lubim.” Most modern English versions render this as “Libya” or “the Libyans.”


The preposition בְּ ( bet ) in בְּעֶזְרָתֵךְ ( bÿ ’ ezratekh ) should probably be taken as a bet of identity rather than in a locative sense ( DCH 2:84 s.v. בְּ 7; HALOT 104 s.v. בְּ 3).


Although the LXX and Syriac read a 3 fs suffix, the 2 fs suffix on MT בְּעֶזְרָתֵךְ ( bÿ ’ ezratekh , “your strength”) should be retained because of the support of 4QpNah, which reads בעזרתך . The MT is the more difficult reading and best explains the origin of the variants, which attempt to harmonize with the preceding 3 fs suffix. tn Heb “your strength.” sn This is an example of enallage – a figure of speech in which a speaker addresses a party who is not present. Here, the prophet Nahum addresses the city of Thebes.


The Hebrew noun עָזָר (’ azar ) has been understood in two ways: (1) In the light of the Ugaritic root gzr (“hero, valiant one, warrior”), several scholars posit the existence of the Hebrew root II עָזַר (“warrior”), and translate בְּעֶזְרָתֵךְ ( bÿ ’ ezratekh ) as “in your army” (M. Dahood, Psalms , 1:210; P. Miller, “Ugaritic GZR and Hebrew `ZR II,” UF 2 [1970]: 168). (2) It is better to relate the Hebrew עָזָר to Canaanite izirtu (“military help”) which appears several times in the El-Amarna correspondence: “Let him give you soldiers and chariots as help for you so that they may protect the city” ( EA 87:13) and “I have provided help for Tyre” ( EA 89:18); see K. J. Cathcart, “More Philological Studies in Nahum,” JNWSL 7 (1979): 11.


The MT reads לַגֹּלָה ( laggolah , “as a captive”) with the preposition לְ ( lamed ) denoting essence/identity. On the other hand, 4QpNah reads בגולה (“as a captive”) with the preposition בְּ ( bet ) denoting essence/identity (“as a captive”). The LXX’s αἰξμάλωτος ( aixmalwto" , “as a prisoner”) does not reveal which preposition was the original.


The past-time reference of the context indicates that the Pual verb יְרֻטְּשׁוּ ( yÿruttÿshu ) is a preterite describing past action (“they were smashed to pieces”) rather than an imperfect describing future action (“they will be smashed to pieces”). The past-time sense is supported by the Syriac and Vulgate. The LXX, however, misunderstood the form as an imperfect. Not recognizing that the form is a preterite, the BHS editors suggest emending to Pual perfect רֻטְּשׁוּ ( ruttÿshu , “they were smashed to pieces”). This emendation is unnecessary once the possibility of a preterite is recognized. The Masoretic reading is supported by the reading ירוטשו found in the Dead Sea Scrolls (4QpNah 3:10 ).


The MT reads יַדּוּ ( yadu , “they cast [lots]”) from יָדַד ( yadad , “to cast [lots]”). On the other hand, the Dead Sea Scrolls (4QpNah) read ירו (“they threw, cast [lots]”) from יָרָה ( yarah , “to throw, cast [lots]”) (e.g., Josh 18:6 ). The textual variant arose due to orthographic confusion between ד ( dalet ) and ר ( resh ) – two Hebrew letters very similar in appearance. The root יָדַד is relatively rare – it occurs only two other times ( Obad 11 ; Joel 4:3 [ 3:3 ET]) – therefore, it might have been confused with יָרָה which appears more frequently.


The MT and Dead Sea Scrolls (4QpNah) read ועל נכבדיה (“for her nobles”). The LXX reflects וְעַל כָּל נִכְבַּדֶּיהָ ( vÿ ’ al kol nikhbaddeha , “for all her nobles”), adding כָּל (“all”). The LXX addition probably was caused by the influence of the repetition of כָּל in the preceding and following lines.


The editors of BHS suggest emending the MT reading, the Qal imperfect תִּשְׁכְּרִי ( tishkÿri , “you will become drunk”) from שָׁכַר ( shakhar , “to become drunk”; BDB 1016 s.v. שָׁכַר ; HALOT 971 s.v. שׁכר ). However, there is no external textual support for the emendation. The imagery of drunkenness is a common figure for defeat in battle. tn Heb “you will be drunken.” sn You…will act like drunkards . The imagery of drunkenness is frequently used to describe defeat in battle ( Isa 49:26 ; Jer 25:27; 51:21 ). It is an appropriate use of imagery: Drunkards frequently pass out and wine drools out of their mouth; likewise, slain warriors lie fallen and their blood flows out of their mouths.


The MT reads the Niphal participle נַעֲלָמָה ( na ’ alamah ) from I עָלַם (’ alam , “to conceal”). This is supported by the Dead Sea Scrolls, נעלמה (4QpNah 3:11 ), and is reflected by the LXX. Several scholars suggest nuancing the Niphal in a passive sense: “you will be concealed” or “you will be obscured” (BDB 761 s.v. I. עָלַם 2). However, the reflexive sense “you will conceal yourself; you will hide yourself” (e.g., Ps 26:4 ) is better ( HALOT 835 s.v. עלם ). On the other hand, the BHS editors suggest emending to the Niphal participle נֶעֱלָפָה ( ne ’ elafah ) from עָלַף (’ alaf , “become faint”): “you will become faint,” “you will pass out,” or “you will swoon” ( HALOT 836 s.v. עלף ; BDB 761 s.v. I. עָלַם 2). This is unnecessary and lacks textual support. tn Heb “you will hide yourself.”


This conditional sentence expresses a real anticipated situation expected to occur in the future, rather than an unreal completely hypothetical situation. The particle אִם (’ im , “if”) introduces real conditions (R. J. Williams, Hebrew Syntax , 75, §453). The imperfect tense verb יִנּוֹעוּ ( yinno ’ u , “they are shaken”) depicts a future-time action conceived as a real situation expected to occur (see Joüon 2:629 §167.c; IBHS 510-11 §31.6.1).


Heb “they”; the referent (the first ripe fruit of the previous line, rendered here as “their figs”) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


The syntax of the concluding clause (apodosis) emphasizes that this action is expected and certain to occur. This clause is introduced by vav conjunction and the perfect tense verb וְנָפְלוּ ( vÿnoflu , “they will fall”) which emphasizes the expected certainty of the action (see Joüon 2:627-33 §167; IBHS 526-29 §32.2.1).


Or “have been opened wide.” The Niphal perfect נִפְתְּחוּ ( niftÿkhu ) from פָּתַח ( patach , “to open”) may designate a past-time action (“have been opened wide”) or a present-time circumstance (“are wide open”). The present-time sense is preferred in vv. 13-14 . When used in reference to present-time circumstances, the perfect tense represents a situation occurring at the very instant the expression is being uttered; this is the so-called “instantaneous perfect” ( IBHS 488-89 §30.5.1). The root פָּתַח (“to open”) is repeated for emphasis to depict the helpless state of the Assyrian defenses: פָּתוֹחַ נִפְתְּחוּ ( patoakh niftÿkhu , “wide open”).


Or “has consumed.” The Qal perfect אָכְלָה (’ okhlah ) from אָכַל (’ akhal , “to consume”) refers either to a past-time action (“has consumed”) or a present-time action (“consumes”). The context suggests the present-time sense is preferable here. This is an example of the “instantaneous perfect” which represents a situation occurring at the very instant the expression is being uttered (see IBHS 488-89 §30.5.1).


Heb “your bars.”


Heb “waters of siege.”


Heb “go into the mud.”


Heb “Take hold of the mud-brick mold!”


The verb אָכַל (’ akhal , “to consume, to devour”) is used twice for emphasis: “the fire will consume you, the sword…will devour you.” sn The expression the sword…will devour you is an example of personification; the sword is frequently portrayed as consuming or devouring a defeated enemy ( Deut 32:42 ; 2 Sam 2:26; 11:25; 18:8 ; Hos 11:6 ; Jer 2:30; 12:12 ); see BDB 37 s.v. אָכַל 4; HALOT 46 s.v. אכל .


The root כָּבֵּד ( kabbed , “be numerous”) is repeated for emphasis: the forms are the Hitpael infinitive absolute הִתְכַּבֵּד ( hitkabbed ) and Hitpael imperative הִתְכַּבְּדִי ( hitkabbÿdi ), both translated here as “Multiply yourself”). The infinitive absolute functions as an imperative (GKC §113. bb , 346). The BHS editors suggest emending the Hitpael infinitive absolute form הִתְכַּבֵּד to the Hitpael imperative form הִתְכַּבְּדִי in order to have two identical forms in this line. However, this is not necessary; the infinitive absolute is used for stylistic variation and often precedes imperatives to add urgency. The MT makes sense as it stands.


Or “Increase!” or “You have increased.” The form and meaning of the MT perfect tense verb הִרְבֵּית ( hirbet ; from רָבָה [ ravah ], “to increase”) is debated. The LXX translated it as a simple past meaning. However, some scholars argue for an imperatival form or an imperatival nuance due to the presence of the two preceding volitive forms: הִתְכַּבֵּד ( hitkabbed ) and הִתְכַּבְּדִי ( hitkabbÿdi , “Multiply…multiply!”). For example, the editors of BHS propose emending the perfect tense הִרְבֵּית to the imperative form הַרְבִי ( harvi , “multiply!”). K. J. Cathcart ( Nahum in the Light of Northwest Semitic [BibOr], 145) retains the MT perfect form but classifies it as a precative perfect with an imperatival nuance (“increase!”). Some scholars deny the existence of the precative perfect in Hebrew (G. R. Driver, Tenses in Hebrew , 25-26); however, others argue for its existence ( IBHS 494-95 §30.5.4).


The words “they are like” are not in the Hebrew text, but are supplied in the translation for clarity.


The verb פָּשַׁט ( pashat , “to strip off”) refers to the action of the locust shedding its outer layer of skin or sheaths of wings while in the larval stage (BDB 833 s.v.). In a similar sense, this verb is normally used of a person stripping off garments ( Gen 37:23 ; Lev 6:4; 16:23 ; Num 20:26, 28 ; 1 Sam 18:4; 19:24; 31:8, 9 ; 2 Sam 23:10 ; 1 Chr 10:8, 9 ; Neh 4:17 ; Job 19:9; 22:6 ; Ezek 16:39; 23:26; 26:16; 44:19 ; Hos 2:5 ; Mic 2:8; 3:3 ).


Or “your guards.” The noun מִגְּזָרַיִךְ ( miggÿzarayikh , “your courtiers”) is related to Assyrian manzazu (“courtier”; AHw 2:639.a) or massaru (“guard”; AHw 2:621.a); see HALOT 601 s.v. * מִגְּזָר ). The nuance “princes,” suggested by older lexicographers (BDB 634 s.v. מִנְזַר ), is obsolete.


The noun טַפְסְרַיִךְ ( tafsÿrayikh , “your scribes”) from טִפְסָר ( tifsar , “scribe, marshal”) is a loanword from Assyrian tupsarru and Sumerian DUB.SAR (“tablet-writer; scribe; official”); see BDB 381 s.v. טִפְסָר ; HALOT 379 s.v. This term is also attested in Ugaritic tupsarru and in Phoenician dpsr . As in Jer 51:27 , it is used of military and administrative officials. This term designated military officials who recorded the names of recruits and the military activities of Assyrian kings (see P. Machinist, “Assyria and its Image in the First Isaiah,” JAOS 103 [1983]: 736).


Heb “it flees.”


The BHS editors propose redividing the singular MT reading וְנוֹדַד ( vÿnodad , “and it flees”) to the plural וְנוֹדְדוּ ( vÿnodÿdu , “and they flee”) due to the difficulty of a singular verb. However, the LXX supports the singular MT reading. The subject is גוֹב ( gov , “swarm”), not individual locusts.


The MT reads the noun with 3rd person masculine singular suffix מְקוֹמוֹ ( mÿqomo , “its place”). The BHS editors suggest emending to 3rd person masculine plural suffix מְקוֹמָם ( mÿqomam , “their place”). The MT is supported by the LXX reading, which has a singular suffix. The 3rd person masculine singular suffix is not as awkward as the BHS editors claim – its antecedent is the singular אַרְבֶּה (’ arbeh , “locust”) and גוֹב גֹבָי ( gov govay , “a swarm of locusts”), as reflected by the 3rd person masculine singular verb וְנוֹדַד (translated “it flies away”).


The MT reads אַיָּם (’ ayyam , “Where are they?”); see, e.g., Isa 19:12 ; DCH 1:202-3 s.v. אֵי ; HALOT 40 s.v.). On the other hand, the LXX’s οὐαί αὐτοῖς ( ouai autoi" , “Woe to them!”) seems to reflect a reading of אֶיָּם (’ eyyam , “Alas to them!”). The BHS editors suggest emending to אֵיכָה (“Alas!” or “How?”) and join it to v. 18 , or אוֹי מַה (’ oy mah , “Woe! Why…?”) joined to v. 18 . HALOT (40 s.v.) suggests the emendation אֵיךָ (’ ekha , “Alas to you!”). tn Heb “Its place is not known – where are they?” The form אַיָּם has been taken in various ways: (1) an interrogative adverb with 3rd person masculine plural suffix (“where are they?”; GKC 296-97 §100. o ; BDB 32 s.v. אַי 1.a); (2) an interrogative particle אֵי (’ ey , “where?”) lengthened to אַיָּה ( ayyah ) and written with the enclitic particle ־ם ( mem ; GKC 295 §100. g ), similar to ayyami (“where?”) in Assyrian ( CAD 1.1.220); see W. A. Maier, Nahum , 356; R. D. Patterson, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah (WEC), 111; T. Longman, “Nahum,” The Minor Prophets , 2:826.


The Hebrew term אַדִּירֶיךָ (’ addirekha , “your officers”) from the root אַדִּיר (’ addir , “high noble, majestic one”) designates “prominent people” in society ( Judg 5:13, 25 ; Jer 14:3 ; Ps 16:3 ; Neh 3:5; 10:30 ; 2 Chr 23:20 ) and prominent “officers” in the military ( Nah 2:6; 3:18 ); see HALOT 14 s.v.; BDB 12 s.v. אַדִּיר . This is related to Assyrian adaru (“high noble official”).


The MT reads יִשְׁכְּנוּ ( yishkÿnu , “they are settling down; they are lying down”) from שָׁכַן ( shakhan , “to settle down, to lie down”). The BHS editors suggest emending to יָשְׁנוּ ( yashnu , “they are slumbering”) in order to produce a tighter parallelism with the parallel verb נָמוּ ( namu , “they are sleeping”). However, the MT has an adequate parallelism because the verb שָׁכַן is often used in reference to the dead lying down in the grave ( Job 4:19; 26:5 ; Ps 94:17 ; Isa 26:19 ; see BDB 1015 s.v. שָׁכַן Qal.2.b). This is a figurative expression (hypocatastasis) for someone dying. Although the LXX misunderstood the syntax of this line, the LXX translation ἐκοίμισε ( ekoimise , “he has laid low”) points to a form of the Masoretic verbal root שָׁכַן .


The words “like sheep” are not in the Hebrew text; they are added for clarification of the imagery. The previous line compares Assyria’s leaders to shepherds.


The MT reads the hapax legomenon כֵּהָה ( kehah , “relief, alleviation”). On the other hand, the LXX reads ἴασις ( iasi" , “healing”) which seems to reflect a reading of גֵּהָה ( gehah , “cure, healing”). In the light of the LXX, the BHS editors suggest emending the MT to גֵּהָה ( gehah ) – which occurs only once elsewhere ( Prov 17:22 ) – on the basis of orthographic and phonological confusion between Hebrew כ ( kaf ) and ג ( gimel ). This emendation would produce the common ancient Near Eastern treaty-curse: “there is no cure for your wound” (e.g., Hos 5:13 ); see HALOT 461 s.v. כֵּהָה ; K. J. Cathcart, “Treaty-Curses and the Book of Nahum,” CBQ 35 (1973): 186; D. Hillers, Treaty-Curses and the Old Testament Prophets , 64-66. tn Heb “There is no relief of your fracture.”


Heb “your injury is fatal.”


Heb “the report of you.”


Heb “will clap their hands over you.”


Heb “For who ever escaped…?”


Heb “The burden” (so KJV, ASV). The Hebrew term מַשָּׂא ( masa ’), usually translated “oracle” (NAB, NEB, NASB, NIV, NRSV) or “utterance” (BDB 672 s.v. III מַשָּׂא ), in prophetic literature is a technical term introducing a message from the Lord (see Zech 9:1; 12:1 ; Mal 1:1 ). Since it derives from a verb meaning “to carry,” its original nuance was that of a burdensome message, that is, one with ominous content.


Heb “Why do you make me see injustice?”


Heb “Why do you look at wrongdoing?” sn Habakkuk complains that God tolerates social injustice and fails to intervene on behalf of the oppressed ( put up with wrongdoing ).


Heb “are before.”


Heb “and there is conflict and strife he lifts up.” The present translation takes the verb יִשָּׂא ( yisa ’) in the sense of “carry, bear,” and understands the subject to be indefinite (“one”).


Heb “the law is numb,” i.e., like a hand that has “fallen asleep” (see Ps 77:2 ). Cf. NAB “is benumbed”; NIV “is paralyzed.”


Heb “never goes out.”


Or “for.”


Heb “surround” (so NASB, NRSV).


Or “righteous” (KJV, NASB, NIV, NRSV, NLT).


Heb “comes out crooked.”


Or “look among the nations and observe.” The imperatival forms in v. 5 are plural, indicating that the Lord’s message is for the whole nation, not just the prophet.


The Hebrew text combines the Hitpael and Qal imperatival forms of the verb תָּמַה ( tamah , “be amazed”). A literal translation might read, “Shock yourselves and be shocked!” The repetition of sounds draws attention to the statement. The imperatives here have the force of an emphatic assertion. On this use of the imperative in Hebrew, see GKC 324 §110. c and IBHS 572-73 §34.4c.


Heb “for a work working in your days.” Following the LXX reading, some supply a first person singular pronoun with the participle פֹּעֵל ( po ’ el ). Ellipsis of a first singular pronoun before participles is relatively rare (see GKC 360 §116. s ); perhaps an original אֲנֹכִי (’ anoki ; or אֲנִי , ’ aniy ) followed the initial כִּי ( ki ) and was omitted by homoioteleuton.


Heb “you will not believe when it is told.” In this context the force of כִּי ( ki ) may be “when,” “if,” or “even though.”


Heb “raise up” (so KJV, ASV).


Heb “bitter.” Other translation options for this word in this context include “fierce” (NASB, NRSV); “savage” (NEB); or “grim.”


Heb “hasty, quick.” Some translate here “impetuous” (so NEB, NASB, NIV, NRSV) or “rash,” but in this context greed may very well be the idea. The Babylonians move quickly and recklessly ahead in their greedy quest to expand their empire.


Heb “the open spaces.”


Heb “from him his justice, even his lifting up, goes out.” In this context שְׂאֵת ( sÿ ’ et ) probably has the nuance “authority.” See R. D. Patterson, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah (WEC), 150.


Heb “sharper,” in the sense of “keener” or “more alert.” Some translate “quicker” on the basis of the parallelism with the first line (see HALOT 291 s.v. חדד ).


Heb “wolves of the evening,” that is, wolves that prowl at night. The present translation assumes an emendation to עֲרָבָה (’ aravah , “desert”). On this phrase see also Zeph 3:3 .


Or “horsemen,” “cavalry.”


The precise nuance of the rare verb פָּוַשׁ ( parash ) is unclear here. Elsewhere it is used of animals jumping or leaping (see Jer 50:11 ; Mal 4:2 ).


Or “eagle” (so NASB, NRSV). The term can refer to either eagles or vultures, but in this context of gruesome destruction and death “vulture” is preferred.


Heb “they fly like a vulture/an eagle quickly to devour.” The direct object “their prey” is not included in the Hebrew text but is implied, and has been supplied in the translation for clarity.


Heb “come.”


Heb “The totality of their faces is to the east” (or “is forward”). The precise meaning of the Hebrew term מְגַמַּת ( megammat ) is unclear. For a discussion of options see J. J. M. Roberts, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah (OTL), 93. NEB has “a sea of faces rolls on”; NIV “their hordes advance like a desert wind”; NRSV “with faces pressing forward.”


Heb “and he gathers like sand, prisoners.”


Heb “they heap up dirt.” This is a reference to the piling up of earthen ramps in the process of laying siege to a fortified city.


The precise meaning of v. 11 a is uncertain. The present translation assumes the first line further describes the Babylonian hordes, comparing them to a destructive wind. Another option is to understand רוּחַ ( ruakh ) as “spirit,” rather than “wind,” and take the form וְאָשֵׁם ( vÿ ’ ashem ) with what precedes (as suggested by the scribal punctuation). Repointing this form as a geminate verb from שָׁמַם ( shamam , “be astonished”), one could then translate the line, “The spirit passed on and departed, and I was astonished.” In this case the line would describe the cessation of the divine revelation which began in v. 5 . For a detailed defense of this view, see J. J. M. Roberts, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah (OTL), 97-100.


Heb “and guilty is the one whose strength is his god.” This assumes that אָשֵׁם (’ ashem ) is a predicate adjective meaning “guilty” and that it relates to what follows.


Heb “Are you not from antiquity, O Lord ?” The rhetorical question expects the answer, “Yes, of course.” The present translation reflects the force of the rhetorical question, rendering it as an affirmation. When used in a temporal sense the phrase מִקֶדֶם ( miqedem ) means “from antiquity, ancient times,” often referring to earlier periods in Israel’s history. See its use in Neh 12:46 ; Pss 74:12; 77:11 ; Isa 45:21; 46:10 ; Mic 5:2 .


Heb “My God, my holy one.” God’s “holiness” in this context is his sovereign transcendence as the righteous judge of the world (see vv. 12 b-13a), thus the translation “My sovereign God.”


The MT reads, “we will not die,” but an ancient scribal tradition has “you [i.e., God] will not die.” This is preferred as a more difficult reading that can explain the rise of the other variant. Later scribes who copied the manuscripts did not want to associate the idea of death with God in any way, so they softened the statement to refer to humanity.


Heb “him,” a collective singular referring to the Babylonians. The plural pronoun “them” has been used in the translation in keeping with contemporary English style.


Heb “for judgment.”


Heb “Rock” or “Cliff.” This divine epithet views God as a place where one can go to be safe from danger. The translation “Protector” conveys the force of the metaphor (cf. KJV, NEB “O mighty God”).


Heb “to correct, reprove.”


Heb “[you] are too pure of eyes.” God’s “eyes” here signify what he looks at with approval. His “eyes” are “pure” in that he refuses to tolerate any wrongdoing in his presence.


Heb “to see.” Here “see” is figurative for “tolerate,” “put up with.”


Heb “to look at.” Cf. NEB “who canst not countenance wrongdoing”; NASB “You can not look on wickedness with favor.”


Heb “Why do you look at treacherous ones?” The verb בָּגַד ( bagad , “be treacherous”) is often used of those who are disloyal or who violate agreements. See S. Erlandsson, TDOT 1:470-73.


Or “swallow up.”


Heb “more innocent than themselves.”


The Hebrew word רֶמֶשׂ ( remesh ) usually refers to animals that creep, but here the referent seems to be marine animals that glide through the water (note the parallelism in the previous line). See also Ps 104:25 .


Heb “he”; the referent (the Babylonian tyrant) has been specified in the translation for clarity (cf. NASB “The Chaldeans”; NIV “The wicked foe”; NRSV “The enemy”). Babylonian imperialism is here compared to a professional fisherman who repeatedly brings in his catch and has plenty to eat.


Apparently two different types of fishing nets are referred to here. The חֵרֶם ( kherem , “throw net”) was used by fishermen standing on the shore (see Ezek 47:10 ), while the מִכְמֶרֶת ( mikhmeret , “dragnet”) was used by men in a boat. See R. D. Patterson, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah (WEC), 165.


Heb “and he gathers.”


Heb “Therefore he is happy and rejoices.” Here two synonyms are joined for emphasis.


Heb “therefore.”


Heb “for by them his portion is full [or, “fat”].”


Heb “and his food is plentiful [or, “fat”].”


Or “therefore.”


Heb “Will he then empty his throw net?” The words “continue to fill and” are supplied in the translation for clarification.


Or “continually.”


Heb “kill.”


Or “without showing compassion.”


The word “know” is supplied in the translation for clarification.


Heb “concerning my correction [or, “reproof”].”


Heb “the Lord answered and said.” The redundant expression “answered and said” has been simplified in the translation as “responded.”


Heb “[the] vision.”


Or “reads from.”


Heb “might run,” which here probably means “run [through it quickly with one’s eyes],” that is, read it easily.


Heb “For the vision is still for the appointed time.” The Hebrew word עוֹד (’ od , “still”) is better emended to עֵד (’ ed , “witness”) in light of the parallelism (see the note on the word “turn out” in the following line). The “appointed time” refers to the time when the divine judgment anticipated in vv. 6-20 will be realized.


Heb “and a witness to the end and it does not lie.” The Hebrew term יָפֵחַ ( yafeakh ) has been traditionally understood as a verb form from the root פּוּחַ ( puakh , “puff, blow”; cf. NEB “it will come in breathless haste”; NASB “it hastens toward the goal”) but recent scholarship has demonstrated that it is actually a noun meaning “witness” (cf. NIV “it speaks of the end / and will not prove false”; NRSV “it speaks of the end, and does not lie”). See J. J. M. Roberts, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah (OTL), 106. “The end” corresponds to “the appointed time” of the preceding line and refers to the time when the prophecy to follow will be fulfilled.


Heb “it”; the referent (the message) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


Heb “If it should delay, wait for it.” The Hebrew word חָזוֹן ( khazon , “vision, message”) is the subject of the third person verbs in v. 3 and the antecedent of the pronominal suffix in the phrase “for it.”


The meaning of this line is unclear, primarily because of the uncertainty surrounding the second word, עֲפְּלָה (’ apÿlah ). Some read this as an otherwise unattested verb עָפַל (’ afal , “swell”) from which are derived nouns meaning “mound” and “hemorrhoid.” This “swelling” is then understood in an abstract sense, “swell with pride.” This would yield a translation, “As for the proud, his desires are not right within him” (cf. NASB “as for the proud one”; NIV “he is puffed up”; NRSV “Look at the proud!”). A multitude of other interpretations of this line, many of which involve emendations of the problematic form, may be found in the commentaries and periodical literature. The present translation assumes an emendation to a Pual form of the verb עָלַף (’ alaf , “be faint, exhausted”). (See its use in the Pual in Isa 51:20 , and in the Hitpael in Amos 8:13 and Jonah 4:8 .) In the antithetical parallelism of the verse, it corresponds to חָיָה ( khayah , “live”). The phrase לֹא יָשְׁרָה נַפְשׁוֹ בּוֹ ( lo ’ yoshrah nafsho bo ), literally, “not upright his desire within him,” is taken as a substantival clause that contrasts with צַדִּיק ( tsadiq , “the righteous one”) and serves as the subject of the preceding verb. Here נֶפֶשׁ ( nefesh ) is understood in the sense of “desire” (see BDB 660-61 s.v. נֶפֶשׁ for a list of passages where the word carries this sense).


Or “righteous.” The oppressed individuals mentioned in 1:4 are probably in view here.


Or “will be preserved.” In the immediate context this probably refers to physical preservation through both the present oppression and the coming judgment (see Hab 3:16-19 ).


Or “loyalty”; or “integrity.” The Hebrew word אֱמוּנָה (’ emunah ) has traditionally been translated “faith,” but the term nowhere else refers to “belief” as such. When used of human character and conduct it carries the notion of “honesty, integrity, reliability, faithfulness.” The antecedent of the suffix has been understood in different ways. It could refer to God’s faithfulness, but in this case one would expect a first person suffix (the original form of the LXX has “my faithfulness” here). Others understand the “vision” to be the antecedent. In this case the reliability of the prophecy is in view. For a statement of this view, see J. J. M. Roberts, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah (OTL), 111-12. The present translation assumes that the preceding word “[the person of] integrity” is the antecedent. In this case the Lord is assuring Habakkuk that those who are truly innocent will be preserved through the coming oppression and judgment by their godly lifestyle, for God ultimately rewards this type of conduct. In contrast to these innocent people, those with impure desires (epitomized by the greedy Babylonians; see v. 5 ) will not be able to withstand God’s judgment (v. 4 a).


Heb “Indeed wine betrays a proud man and he does not dwell.” The meaning of the last verb, “dwell,” is uncertain. Many take it as a denominative of the noun נָוָה ( navah , “dwelling place”). In this case it would carry the idea, “he does not settle down,” and would picture the drunkard as restless (cf. NIV “never at rest”; NASB “does not stay at home”). Some relate the verb to an Arabic cognate and translate the phrase as “he will not succeed, reach his goal.” sn The Babylonian tyrant is the proud, restless man described in this line as the last line of the verse, with its reference to the conquest of the nations, makes clear. Wine is probably a metaphor for imperialistic success. The more success the Babylonians experience, the more greedy they become just as a drunkard wants more and more wine to satisfy his thirst. But eventually this greed will lead to their downfall, for God will not tolerate such imperialism and will judge the Babylonians appropriately (vv. 6-20 ).


Heb “who opens wide like Sheol his throat.” Here נֶפֶשׁ ( nefesh ) is understood in a physical sense, meaning “throat,” which in turn is figurative for the appetite. See H. W. Wolff, Anthropology of the Old Testament , 11-12.


Heb “he gathers for himself.”


Heb “he collects for himself.”


Heb “Will not these, all of them, take up a taunt against him…?” The rhetorical question assumes the response, “Yes, they will.” The present translation brings out the rhetorical force of the question by rendering it as an affirmation.


Heb “and a mocking song, riddles, against him? And one will say.”


Heb “Woe [to] the one who increases [what is] not his.” The Hebrew term הוֹי ( hoy , “woe,” “ah”) was used in funeral laments and carries the connotation of death.


This question is interjected parenthetically, perhaps to express rhetorically the pain and despair felt by the Babylonians’ victims.


Heb “and the one who makes himself heavy [i.e., wealthy] [by] debts.” Though only appearing in the first line, the term הוֹי ( hoy ) is to be understood as elliptical in the second line.


Heb “Will not your creditors suddenly rise up?” The rhetorical question assumes the response, “Yes, they will.” The present translation brings out the rhetorical force of the question by rendering it as an affirmation. sn Your creditors will suddenly attack . The Babylonians are addressed directly here. They have robbed and terrorized others, but now the situation will be reversed as their creditors suddenly attack them.


Heb “[Will not] the ones who make you tremble awake?”


Heb “and you will become their plunder.”


Or “nations.”


Or “peoples.”


Heb “because of the shed blood of humankind and violence against land, city.” The singular forms אֶרֶץ (’ erets , “land”) and קִרְיָה ( qiryah , “city”) are collective, referring to all the lands and cities terrorized by the Babylonians.


Heb “Woe [to] the one who profits unjustly by evil unjust gain for his house.” On the term הוֹי ( hoy ) see the note on the word “dead” in v. 6 .


Heb “to place his nest in the heights in order to escape from the hand of disaster.” sn Here the Babylonians are compared to a bird, perhaps an eagle, that builds its nest in an inaccessible high place where predators cannot reach it.


Heb “you planned shame for your house, cutting off many nations, and sinning [against] your life.”


On the term הוֹי ( hoy ) see the note on the word “dead” in v. 6 .


Heb “Is it not, look, from the Lord of hosts that the nations work hard for fire, and the peoples are exhausted for nothing?”


Heb “for the earth will be filled with the knowledge of the glory of the Lord , just as the waters cover over the sea.”


No direct object is present after “drink” in the Hebrew text. “Wine” is implied, however, and has been supplied in the translation for clarity.


Heb “pouring out your anger and also making drunk”; or “pouring out your anger and [by] rage making drunk.” The present translation assumes that the final khet ( ח ) on מְסַפֵּחַ ( misapeakh , “pouring”) is dittographic and that the form should actually be read מִסַּף ( missaf , “from a bowl”). sn Forcing them to drink from the bowl of your furious anger . The Babylonian’s harsh treatment of others is compared to intoxicating wine which the Babylonians force the nations to drink so they can humiliate them. Cf. the imagery in Rev 14:10 .


Heb “are filled.” The translation assumes the verbal form is a perfect of certitude, emphasizing the certainty of Babylon’s coming judgment, which will reduce the majestic empire to shame and humiliation.


Or “glory.”


Heb “drink, even you, and show the foreskin.” Instead of הֵעָרֵל ( he ’ arel , “show the foreskin”) one of the Dead Sea scrolls has הֵרָעֵל ( hera ’ el , “stumble”). This reading also has support from several ancient versions and is followed by the NEB (“you too shall drink until you stagger”) and NRSV (“Drink, you yourself, and stagger”). For a defense of the Hebrew text, see P. D. Miller, Jr., Sin and Judgment in the Prophets , 63-64.


Heb “for the violence against Lebanon will cover you.”


The Hebrew appears to read literally, “and the violence against the animals [which] he terrified.” The verb form יְחִיתַן ( yÿkhitan ) appears to be a Hiphil imperfect third masculine singular with third feminine plural suffix (the antecedent being the animals) from חָתַת ( khatat , “be terrified”). The translation above follows the LXX and assumes a reading יְחִתֶּךָ ( yÿkhittekha , “[the violence against the animals] will terrify you”; cf. NRSV “the destruction of the animals will terrify you”; NIV “and your destruction of animals will terrify you”). In this case the verb is a Hiphil imperfect third masculine singular with second masculine singular suffix (the antecedent being Babylon). This provides better symmetry with the preceding line, where Babylon’s violence is the subject of the verb “cover.” sn The language may anticipate Nebuchadnezzar’s utilization of trees from the Lebanon forest in building projects. Lebanon and its animals probably represent the western Palestinian states conquered by the Babylonians.


Or “of what value.”


Heb “so that the one who forms it fashions it?” Here כִּי ( ki ) is taken as resultative after the rhetorical question. For other examples of this use, see R. J. Williams, Hebrew Syntax , 73, §450.


Heb “or a metal image, a teacher of lies.” The words “What good is” in the translation are supplied from the previous parallel line. “Teacher of lies” refers to the false oracles that the so-called god would deliver through a priest. See J. J. M. Roberts, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah (OTL), 126.


Heb “so that the one who forms his image trusts in it?” As earlier in the verse, כִּי ( ki ) is resultative.


Heb “to make.”


Heb “Woe [to] the one who says.” On the term הוֹי ( hoy ) see the note on the word “dead” in v. 6 .


The words “he who says” in the translation are supplied from the previous parallel line.


Or “holy temple.” The Lord ’s heavenly palace, rather than the earthly temple, is probably in view here (see Ps 11:4 ; Mic 1:2-3 ). The Hebrew word ֹקדֶשׁ ( qodesh , “holy”) here refers to the sovereign transcendence associated with his palace.


Or “Be quiet before him, all the earth!”


The Hebrew text adds עַל שִׁגְיֹנוֹת (’ al shigyonot , “upon [or, “according to”] shigyonot ”). The meaning of this word is uncertain. It may refer to the literary genre of the prayer or to the musical style to be employed when it is sung. The NEB leaves the term untranslated; several other modern English versions transliterate the term into English, sometimes with explanatory notes (NASB, NRSV “according to Shigionoth”; NIV “On shigyonoth ”).


Heb “your report,” that is, “the report concerning you.”


Heb “I fear.” Some prefer to read, “I saw, Lord , what you accomplished” (cf. NEB).


Heb “your work.”


Heb “in the midst of years.” The meaning of the phrase, which occurs only here in the OT, is uncertain (cf. NIV “in our day”; NEB, NASB “in the midst of the years”).


Heb “revive it” (i.e., “your work”).


Heb “make known.” The implied object is “your deeds”; the pronoun “them,” referring to “deeds” in the previous line, was employed in the translation to avoid redundancy. The suffix on the form חַיֵּיהוּ ( khayyehu , “revive it”) does double duty in the parallelism.


Heb “in turmoil remember [to show] compassion.”


In vv. 3-15 there is a mixture of eleven prefixed verbal forms (without vav [ ו ] consecutive or with vav conjunctive), sixteen suffixed forms, and three prefixed forms with vav consecutive. All of the forms are best taken as indicating completed action from the speaker’s standpoint (all of the prefixed forms being regarded as preterites). The forms could be translated with the past tense, but this would be misleading, for this is not a mere recital of God’s deeds in Israel’s past history. Habakkuk here describes, in terms reminiscent of past theophanies, his prophetic vision of a future theophany (see v. 7 , “I saw”). From the prophet’s visionary standpoint the theophany is “as good as done.” This translation uses the English present tense throughout these verses to avoid misunderstanding. A similar strategy is followed by the NEB; in contrast note the NIV and NRSV, which consistently use past tenses throughout the section, and the NASB, which employs present tenses in vv. 3-5 and mostly past tenses in vv. 6-15 .


Or traditionally, “holy one.” The term קָדוֹשׁ ( qadosh , “holy [one]”) here refers to God’s sovereignty. See v. 3 b.


Selah . The meaning of this musical term (which also appears in vv. 9, 13 , and in the Psalms as well) is unknown.


Or “heavens.”


Heb “praise.” This could mean that the earth responds in praise as God’s splendor is observed in the skies. However, the Hebrew term תְּהִלָּה ( tÿhillah , “praise”) can stand by metonymy for what prompts it (i.e., fame, glory, deeds).


Heb “[His] radiance is like light.” Some see a reference to sunlight, but the Hebrew word אוֹר (’ or ) here refers to lightning, as the context indicates (see vv. 4 b, 9, 11). The word also refers to lightning in Job 36:32 and 37:3, 11, 15 .


Heb “two horns from his hand to him.” Sharp, pointed lightning bolts have a “horn-like” appearance. The weapon of “double lightning” appears often in Mesopotamian representations of gods. See Elizabeth Van Buren, Symbols of the Gods in Mesopotamian Art (AnOr), 70-73.


Heb “and there [is] the covering of his strength”; or “and there is his strong covering.” The meaning of this line is unclear. The point may be that the lightning bolts are merely a covering, or outward display, of God’s raw power. In Job 36:32 one reads that God “covers his hands with light [or, “lightning”].”


Because of parallelism with the previous line, the meaning “pestilence” is favored for רֶשֶׁף ( reshef ) here, but usage elsewhere suggests a destructive bolt of fire may be in view. See BDB 958 s.v. sn There are mythological echoes here, for in Canaanite literature the god Resheph aids Baal in his battles. See J. Day, “New Light on the Mythological Background of the Allusion to Resheph in Habakkuk III 5,” VT 29 (1979): 353-55.


Heb “goes out at his feet.”


Heb “he stands.”


This verb has been traditionally understood as “measure” (from מוּד , mud ), but the immediately following context (vv. 6 b-7) favors the meaning “shake” from מָוד ( mavd ; see HALOT 555 s.v.).


Heb “makes [the nations] jump [in fear].”


Or “crumbled,” broke into pieces.”


Heb “ancient ways [or, “doings”] are his.” The meaning of this line is unclear. Traditionally it has been translated, “his ways are eternal.” However, in this context (see vv. 3, 7 ) it is more likely that the line speaks of the Lord taking the same route as in the days of Moses and Deborah (see Deut 33:2 ; Judg 5:4 ). See J. J. M. Roberts, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah (OTL), 154.


Heb “under trouble I saw the tents of Cushan.” sn Cushan was located in southern Transjordan.


R. D. Patterson takes תַּחַת אֲוֶן ( takhat ’ aven ) in the first line as a place name, “Tahath-Aven.” ( Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah [WEC], 237.) In this case one may translate the verse as a tricolon: “I look at Tahath-Aven. The tents of Cushan are shaking, the tent curtains of the land of Midian.”


Heb “so that.” Here כִּי ( ki ) is resultative. See the note on the phrase “make it” in 2:18 .


Heb “you mount your horses.” As the next line makes clear, the Lord is pictured here as a charioteer, not a cavalryman. Note NRSV here, “when you drove your horses, // your chariots to victory.”


Or “chariots of deliverance.”


Heb “[into] nakedness your bow is laid bare.”


Heb “sworn in are the arrow-shafts with a word.” The passive participle of שָׁבַע ( shava ’), “swear an oath,” also occurs in Ezek 21:23 ET ( 21:28 HT) referencing those who have sworn allegiance. Here the Lord ’s arrows are personified and viewed as having received a commission which they have vowed to uphold. In Jer 47:6-7 the Lord ’s sword is given such a charge. In the Ugaritic myths Baal’s weapons are formally assigned the task of killing the sea god Yam.


Heb “[with] rivers you split open the earth.” A literal rendering like “You split the earth with rivers” (so NIV, NRSV) suggests geological activity to the modern reader, but in the present context of a violent thunderstorm, the idea of streams swollen to torrents by downpours better fits the imagery. sn As the Lord comes in a thunderstorm the downpour causes streams to swell to river-like proportions and spread over the surface of the ground, causing flash floods .


Heb “a heavy rain of waters passes by.” Perhaps the flash floods produced by the downpour are in view here.


Heb “in their lofty dwelling places.”


Or “at the light of your arrows they vanish.”


Heb “at the brightness of the lightning of your spear.”


Heb “anointed one.” In light of the parallelism with “your people” in the preceding line this could refer to Israel, but elsewhere the Lord’s anointed one is always an individual. The Davidic king is the more likely referent here.


Heb “you strike the head from the house of wickedness.”


Heb “laying bare [from] foundation to neck.”


Some take “warriors” with the following line, in which case one should translate, “you pierce [his] head with a spear; his warriors storm forward to scatter us” (cf. NIV). The meaning of the Hebrew term פְּרָזוֹ ( pÿrazo ), translated here “his warriors,” is uncertain.


Heb “his shafts.” Some emend to “your shafts.” The translation above assumes an emendation to מַטֶּה ( matteh , “shaft, spear”), the vav-yod ( ו - י ) sequence being a corruption of an original he ( ה ).


Heb “me,” but the author speaks as a representative of God’s people.


Heb “their rejoicing is like devouring the poor in secret.”


Heb “the foaming of the mighty [or “many”] waters.”


Heb “my insides trembled.”


Heb “decay entered my bones.”


Heb “beneath me I shook, which….” The Hebrew term אֲשֶׁר (’ asher ) appears to be a relative pronoun, but a relative pronoun does not fit here. The translation assumes a reading אֲשֻׁרָי (’ ashuray , “my steps”) as well as an emendation of the preceding verb to a third plural form.


The translation assumes that אָנוּחַ (’ anuakh ) is from the otherwise unattested verb נָוָח ( navakh , “sigh”; see HALOT 680 s.v. II נוח ; so also NEB). Most take this verb as נוּחַ ( nuakh , “to rest”) and translate, “I wait patiently” (cf. NIV).


Heb “to come up toward.”


Or “though.”


Heb “the produce of the olive disappoints.”


Heb “food.”


Or “are cut off.”


Or “in.”


Or perhaps, “is my wall,” that is, “my protector.”


Heb “he makes my feet like those of deer.”


Heb “he makes me walk on my high places.” sn Difficult times are coming, but Habakkuk is confident the Lord will sustain him. Habakkuk will be able to survive, just as the deer negotiates the difficult rugged terrain of the high places without injury.


Heb “For the leader, on my stringed instruments.”


Heb “The word of the Lord which came to.”


The Hebrew text combines the infinitive absolute of אָסַף (’ asaf , “gather up, sweep away”) with a Hiphil prefixed first person form of סוּף ( suf , “come to an end”; see Jer 8:13 for the same combination). This can be translated literally, “Sweeping away, I will bring to an end.” Some prefer to emend the text so that the infinitive and finite form of the verb are from the same root (“I will certainly sweep away,” if from אָסַף [cf. NEB, NIV, NRSV]; “I will certainly bring to an end,” if from סוּף ). For a discussion of proposals see J. J. M. Roberts, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah (OTL), 167, 169.


Heb “And the stumbling blocks [or, “ruins”] with the evil”; or “the things that make the evil stumble.” The line does not appear in the original form of the LXX; it may be a later scribal addition. The present translation assumes the “stumbling blocks” are idolatrous images of animals, birds, and fish. See J. J. M. Roberts, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah (OTL), 167, and Adele Berlin, Zephaniah (AB), 73-74.


Heb “cut off.”


Heb “I will stretch out my hand against,” is an idiom for hostile action.


For location see Map5-B1 ; Map6-F3 ; Map7-E2 ; Map8-F2 ; Map10-B3 ; JP1-F4 ; JP2-F4 ; JP3-F4 ; JP4-F4 .


Heb “the remnant of Baal.”


Heb “name.” Here the “name” is figurative for the memory of those who bear it.


Heb “of the pagan priests and priests.” The first word ( כְּמָרִים , kÿmarim ) refers to idolatrous priests in its two other appearances in the OT ( 2 Kgs 23:5 , Hos 10:5 ), while the second word ( כֹּהֲנִים , kohanim ) is the normal term for “priest” and is used of both legitimate and illegitimate priests in the OT. It is likely that the second term, which is omitted in the LXX, is a later scribal addition to the Hebrew text, defining the extremely rare word that precedes (see J. J. M. Roberts, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah [OTL], 167-68; cf. also NEB, NRSV). Some argue that both words are original; among the modern English versions that include both are NASB and NIV. Possibly the first word refers to outright pagan priests, while the second has in view once-legitimate priests of the Lord who had drifted into idolatrous practices. Another option is found in Adele Berlin, who translates, “the idolatrous priests among the priests,” understanding the second word as giving the general category of which the idolatrous priests are a part ( Zephaniah [AB 25A], 75).


The words “I will remove” are repeated from v. 4 b for stylistic reasons. In the Hebrew text vv. 4 b-6 contain a long list of objects for the verb “I will remove” in v. 4 b. In the present translation a new sentence was begun at the beginning of v. 5 in keeping with the tendency of contemporary English to use shorter sentences.


Heb “those who worship on their roofs the host of heaven.” The “host of heaven” included the sun, moon, planets, and stars, all of which were deified in the ancient Near East.


The MT reads, “those who worship, those who swear allegiance to the Lord .” The original form of the LXX omits the phrase “those who worship”; it may have been accidentally repeated from the preceding line. J. J. M. Roberts prefers to delete as secondary the phrase “those who swear allegiance” (J. J. M. Roberts, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah [OTL], 168).


Heb “those who swear by.”


The referent of “their king” is unclear. It may refer sarcastically to a pagan god (perhaps Baal) worshiped by the people. Some English versions (cf. NEB, NASB, NRSV) prefer to emend the text to “Milcom,” the name of an Ammonite god (following some LXX mss , Syriac, and Vulgate) or “Molech,” a god to whom the Israelites offered their children (cf. NIV, NLT). For a discussion of the options, see Adele Berlin, Zephaniah (AB 25A), 75-77.


Heb “turn back from [following] after.”


Heb “who do not seek the Lord and do not inquire of him.” The present translation assumes the first verb refers to praying for divine help and the second to seeking his revealed will through an oracle. Note the usage of the two verbs in 2 Chr 20:3-4 .


Heb “Lord Lord. ” The phrase אֲדֹנָי יְהוִה ( adonai yÿhvih) is customarily rendered by Jewish tradition as “Lord God .”


Heb “the day of the Lord .” sn The origin of the concept of “the day of the Lord ” is uncertain. It may have originated in the ancient Near Eastern idea of the sovereign’s day of conquest, where a king would boast that he had concluded an entire military campaign in a single day (see D. Stuart, “The Sovereign’s Day of Conquest,” BASOR 221 [1976]: 159-64). In the OT the expression is applied to several acts of divine judgment, some historical and others still future (see A. J. Everson, “The Days of Yahweh,” JBL 93 [1974]: 329-37). In the OT the phrase first appears in Amos (assuming that Amos predates Joel and Obadiah), where it seems to refer to a belief on the part of the northern kingdom that God would intervene on Israel’s behalf and judge the nation’s enemies. Amos affirms that the Lord’s day of judgment is indeed approaching, but he declares that it will be a day of disaster, not deliverance, for Israel. Here in Zephaniah, the “day of the Lord” includes God’s coming judgment of Judah, as well as a more universal outpouring of divine anger.


Or “near.”


Heb “a sacrifice.” This same word also occurs in the following verse. sn Because a sacrificial meal presupposes the slaughter of animals, it is used here as a metaphor of the bloody judgment to come.


Or “consecrated” (ASV, NAB, NASB, NIV, NRSV).


Or “officials” (NRSV, TEV); NLT “leaders.”


The referent of “their master” is unclear. The king or a pagan god may be in view.


Heb “who fill…with violence and deceit.” The expression “violence and deceit” refers metonymically to the wealth taken by oppressive measures.


The words “will go up” are supplied in the translation for clarification.


Heb “from the second area.” This may refer to an area northwest of the temple where the rich lived (see Adele Berlin, Zephaniah [AB 25A], 86; cf. NASB, NRSV “the Second Quarter”; NIV “the New Quarter”).


Heb “great breaking.”


Heb “in the Mortar.” The Hebrew term מַכְתֵּשׁ ( makhtesh , “mortar”) is apparently here the name of a low-lying area where economic activity took place.


Or perhaps “Canaanites.” Cf. BDB 489 s.v. I and II כְּנַעֲנִי . Translators have rendered the term either as “the merchant people” (KJV, NKJV), “the traders” (NRSV), “merchants” (NEB, NIV), or, alternatively, “the people of Canaan” (NASB).


Or “be destroyed.”


Heb “weigh out silver.”


Heb “be cut off.” In the Hebrew text of v. 11 b the perfect verbal forms emphasize the certainty of the judgment, speaking of it as if it were already accomplished.


Heb “who thicken on their sediment.” The imagery comes from wine making, where the wine, if allowed to remain on the sediment too long, will thicken into syrup. The image suggests that the people described here were complacent in their sinful behavior and interpreted the delay in judgment as divine apathy.


Heb “who say in their hearts.”


Heb “The Lord does not do good nor does he do evil.”


Heb “The great day of the Lord .” The words “of judgment” are supplied in the translation here and later in this verse for clarity. See the note on the expression “day of judgment” in v. 7 .


Heb “the sound of the day of the Lord , bitter [is] one crying out there, a warrior.” The present translation does four things: (1) It takes מַר ( mar , “bitter”) with what precedes (contrary to the accentuation of the MT). (2) It understands the participle צָרַח ( tsarakh , “cry out in battle”) as verbal with “warrior” as its subject. (3) It takes שָׁם ( sham , “there”) in a temporal sense, meaning “then, at that time.” (4) It understands “warrior” as collective.


Heb “a day of wrath.” The word “God’s” is supplied in the translation for clarification.


Heb “a ram’s horn.” By metonymy the Hebrew text mentions the trumpet (“ram’s horn”) in place of the sound it produces (“trumpet blasts”).


Heb “against.” The words “judgment will fall” are supplied in the translation for clarification.


“The people” refers to mankind in general (see vv. 2-3 ) or more specifically to the residents of Judah (see vv. 4-13 ).


Heb “walk.”


Some take the referent of “flesh” to be more specific here; cf. NEB (“bowels”), NAB (“brains”), NIV (“entrails”).


The words “will be scattered” are supplied in the translation for clarity based on the parallelism with “will be poured out” in the previous line.


Or “land” (cf. NEB). This same word also occurs at the end of the present verse.


Or “passion”; traditionally, “jealousy.”


Or “for.”


Heb “complete destruction, even terror, he will make.”


It is not certain where the Lord ’s words end and the prophet’s words begin. It is possible that Zephaniah begins speaking in the middle of v. 17 or at the beginning of v. 18 (note the third person pronouns referring to the Lord ).


The Hebrew text combines a Hitpolel imperative of קָשַׁשׁ ( qashash ) with a Qal imperative of the same root. Elsewhere this root appears in the polel stem with the meaning “gather stubble.” Zephaniah’s command is ironic, implying the people are like stubble or straw. As such, they are vulnerable to the Lord’s fiery judgment that will quickly consume them (see 1:18 ). See Adele Berlin, Zephaniah (AB 25A), 96.


Some relate this word to an Aramaic cognate meaning “to be ashamed.” With the negative particle it would then mean “unashamed” (cf. NIV “shameful”; NRSV “shameless”). However, elsewhere in biblical Hebrew the verb means “to desire,” or with the negative particle “undesirable.” Cf. also NEB “unruly.”


Heb “before the giving birth of a decree.” For various alternative readings, see J. J. M. Roberts, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah (OTL), 187-88.


The second half of the line reads literally, “like chaff it passes by a day.” The translation above assumes the “day” is the brief time God is giving the nation to repent. The comparison of this quickly passing opportunity to chaff is consistent with the straw imagery of v. 1 .


Heb “the fury of the anger of the Lord .” The synonyms are combined to emphasize the extreme degree of the Lord’s anger.


Heb “comes upon.” This phrase occurs twice in this verse.


Heb “seek the Lord ,” but “favor” seems to be implied from the final line of the verse.


Or “poor.” The precise referent of this Hebrew term is unclear. The word may refer to the economically poor or to the spiritually humble.


The present translation assumes the Hebrew term מִשְׁפָּט ( mishpat ) here refers to God’s covenantal requirements and is a synonym for the Law. The word can mean “justice” and could refer more specifically to the principles of justice contained in the Law. In this case the phrase could be translated, “who have promoted the justice God demands.”


Heb “Seek what is right.”


Heb “Seek humility.”


Heb “hidden.” Cf. NEB “it may be that you will find shelter”; NRSV “perhaps you may be hidden.”


Or “for” (KJV, NAB, NASB, NRSV).


There is a sound play here in the Hebrew text: the name Gaza ( עַזָּה , ’ azzah ) sounds like the word translated “deserted” ( עֲזוּבָה , ’ azuvah ).


Or “a desolate place.”


Heb “[As for] Ashdod, at noon they will drive her away.” sn The reference to noon may suggest a sudden, quick defeat (see Jer 6:4; 15:8 ).


Heb “uprooted.” There is a sound play here in the Hebrew text: the name “Ekron” ( עֶקְרוֹן , ’ eqron ) sounds like the word translated “uprooted” ( תֵּעָקֵר , te ’ aqer ).


Heb “Kerethites,” a people settled alongside the Philistines in the coastal areas of southern Palestine (cf. 1 Sam 30:14 ; Ezek 25:16 ). They originally came from the island of Crete.


Heb “Woe, inhabitants of the coast of the sea, nation of Kerethites.” The Hebrew term הוֹי ( hoy , “ah, woe”), is used to mourn the dead and express outwardly one’s sorrow (see 1 Kgs 13:30 ; Jer 22:18; 34:5 ). By using it here the prophet mourns in advance the downfall of the Philistines, thereby emphasizing the certainty of their demise (“as good as dead”). Some argue the word does not have its earlier connotation here and is simply an attention-getting interjection, equivalent to “Hey!”


The NIV here supplies the phrase “where the Kerethites dwell” (“Kerethites” is translated in v. 5 as “the people who came from Crete”) as an interpretive gloss, but this phrase is not in the MT. The NAB likewise reads “the coastland of the Cretans,” supplying “Cretans” here.


The Hebrew phrase here is נְוֹת כְּרֹת ( nÿvot kÿrot ). The first word is probably a plural form of נָוָה ( navah , “pasture”). The meaning of the second word is unclear. It may be a synonym of the preceding word (cf. NRSV “pastures, meadows for shepherds”); there is a word כַּר ( kar , “pasture”) in biblical Hebrew, but elsewhere it forms its plural with a masculine ending. Some have suggested the meaning “wells” or “caves” used as shelters (cf. NEB “shepherds’ huts”); in this case, one might translate, “The seacoast will be used for pasturelands; for shepherds’ wells/caves.”


Heb “the remnant of the house of Judah.”


Or “the coast will belong to the remnant of the house of Judah.”


Heb “on them,” but the antecedent of the masculine pronoun is unclear. It may refer back to the “pasture lands,” though that noun is feminine. It is preferable to emend the text from עֲלֵיהֶם (’ alehem ) to עַל־הַיָּם (’ al-hayyam , “by the sea”) an emendation that assumes a misdivision and transposition of letters in the MT (cf. NEB “They shall pasture their flocks by the sea”). See J. J. M. Roberts, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah (OTL), 192.


The referent of the pronominal subject (“they”) is unclear. It may refer (1) to the shepherds (in which case the first verb should be translated, “pasture their sheep,” cf. NEB), or (2) to the Judahites occupying the area, who are being compared to sheep (cf. NIV, “there they will find pasture”).


Or “will care for them.”


Traditionally, “restore their captivity,” i.e., bring back their captives, but it is more likely the expression means “restore their fortunes” in a more general sense (cf. NEB, NASB, NIV, NRSV).


Heb “who.” A new sentence was begun here in the translation for stylistic reasons.


Heb “and they made great [their mouth?] against their territory.” Other possible translation options include (1) “they enlarged their own territory” (cf. NEB) and (2) “they bragged about [the size] of their own territory.”


The Hebrew text reads מִמְשַׁק חָרוּל ( mimshaq kharul , “[?] of weeds”). The meaning of the first word is unknown. The present translation (“They will be overrun by weeds”) is speculative, based on the general sense of the context. For a defense of “overrun” on linguistic grounds, see R. D. Patterson, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah (WEC), 347. Cf. NEB “a pile of weeds”; NIV “a place of weeds”; NRSV “a land possessed by nettles.”


The Hebrew text reads וּמִכְרֵה־מֶלַח ( umikhreh-melakh , “and a [?] of salt”). The meaning of the first word is unclear, though “pit” (NASB, NIV, NRSV; NKJV “saltpit”), “mine,” and “heap” (cf. NEB “a rotting heap of saltwort”) are all options. The words “filled with” are supplied for clarification.


Or “The remnant of my people.”


Heb “them.” The actual object of the plundering, “their belongings,” has been specified in the translation for clarity.


Heb “[the] nation.” For clarity the “nation” has been specified as “Judah” in the translation.


Heb “this is for them in place of their arrogance.”


Heb “made great [their mouth?] against” (cf. the last phrase of v. 8 ).


Heb “will be awesome over [or, “against”] them.”


Or “certainly.”


The meaning of this rare Hebrew word is unclear. If the meaning is indeed “weaken,” then this line may be referring to the reduction of these gods’ territory through conquest (see Adele Berlin, Zephaniah [AB 25A], 110-11). Cf. NEB “reduce to beggary”; NASB “starve”; NIV “when he destroys”; NRSV “shrivel.”


Heb “and all the coastlands of the nations will worship [or, “bow down”] to him, each from his own place.”


Heb “Cushites.” This is traditionally assumed to refer to people from the region south of Egypt, i.e., Nubia or northern Sudan, referred to as “Ethiopia” by classical authors (not the more recent Abyssinia).


Heb “Also you Cushites, who lie dead by my sword.”


Heb “He”; the referent (the Lord ) has been specified in the translation for clarity.


Heb “he will stretch out his hand against the north.”


Or “dry.”


Heb “flocks.” The Hebrew word can refer to both flocks of sheep and herds of cattle.


Heb “[and] all the wild animals of a nation.” How גוֹי ( goy , “nation”) relates to what precedes is unclear. It may be a corruption of another word. See J. J. M. Roberts, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah (OTL), 193.


The Hebrew text reads here גַּם־קָאַת גַּם־קִפֹּד ( gam-qa ’ at gam-qippod ). The term קָאַת refers to some type of bird (see Lev 11:18 ; Deut 14:17 ) that was typically found near ruins ( Isa 34:11 ); one of the most common translations is “owl” (cf. NEB “horned owl”; NIV, NRSV “desert owl”; contra NASB “pelican”). The term קִפֹּד may also refer to a type of bird (cf. NEB “ruffed bustard”; NIV, NRSV “screech owl”). Some suggest a rodent may be in view (cf. NASB “hedgehog”); this is not unreasonable, for a rodent or some other small animal would be able to sleep in the tops of pillars which would be lying in the ruins of the fallen buildings.


Heb “a sound will sing in the window.” If some type of owl is in view, “hoot” is a more appropriate translation (cf. NEB, NRSV).


Heb “rubble [will be] on the threshold.” “Rubble” translates the Hebrew word חֹרֶב ( khorev , “desolation”). Some emend to עֹרֵב (’ orev , “raven”) following the LXX and Vulgate; Adele Berlin translates, “A voice shall shriek from the window – a raven at the sill” ( Zephaniah [AB 25A], 104).


The meaning of the Hebrew word translated “cedar work” (so NASB, NRSV) is unclear; NIV has “the beams of cedar.”


Heb “one will expose.” The subject is probably indefinite, though one could translate, “for he [i.e., God] will lay bare.”


Heb “this is the proud city.”


Heb “the one that lived securely.”


Heb “the one who says in her heart.”


Heb “I [am], and besides me there is no other.”


Heb “hisses”; or “whistles.”


The present translation assumes מֹרְאָה ( mor ’ ah ) is derived from רֹאִי ( ro ’ i ,“excrement”; see Jastrow 1436 s.v. רֳאִי ). The following participle, “stained,” supports this interpretation (cf. NEB “filthy and foul”; NRSV “soiled, defiled”). Another option is to derive the form from מָרָה ( marah , “to rebel”); in this case the term should be translated “rebellious” (cf. NASB, NIV “rebellious and defiled”). This idea is supported by v. 2 . For discussion of the two options, see HALOT 630 s.v. I מרא and J. J. M. Roberts, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah (OTL), 206.


Heb “Woe, soiled and stained one, oppressive city.” The verb “is finished” is supplied in the second line. On the Hebrew word הוֹי ( hoy , “ah, woe”), see the note on the word “dead” in 2:5 . sn The following verses show that Jerusalem, personified as a woman (“she”), is the referent.


Heb “she does not hear a voice” Refusing to listen is equated with disobedience.


Heb “she does not receive correction.” The Hebrew phrase, when negated, refers elsewhere to rejecting verbal advice ( Jer 17:23; 32:33; 35:13 ) and refusing to learn from experience ( Jer 2:30; 5:3 ).


Heb “draw near to.” The present translation assumes that the expression “draw near to” refers to seeking God’s will (see 1 Sam 14:36 ).


Or “officials.”


Heb “her princes in her midst are roaring lions.” The metaphor has been translated as a simile (“as fierce as”) for clarity.


Traditionally “judges.”


Heb “her judges [are] wolves of the evening,” that is, wolves that prowl at night. The translation assumes an emendation to עֲרָבָה (’ aravah , “desert”). For a discussion of this and other options, see Adele Berlin, Zephaniah (AB 25A), 128. The metaphor has been translated as a simile (“as hungry as”) for clarity.